{"instructions": ["why did frantzen go to the sales barn\nA. to study human form and movement\nB. to earn money by painting portraits\nC. to paint farm animals in an outdoor setting\nD. to meet people who could model for her paining", "what is the purpose of the first lecture\nA. to explain the difference between two artistic styles\nB. to describe a new art gallery to the class\nC. to introduce an artist's work to the class\nD. to show how artists'styles can evolve over time", "what does the professor say about frantzen's painting of a farm scene\nA. it resembles a photograph\nB. it may be frantzen's best known painting\nC. it was painted in the impressionist style\nD. it was painted while frantzen lived abroad", "what does the professor imply about the painting of the young woman surrounded by pumpkins\nA. it was painted at an art fair\nB. it combines impressionism with realism\nC. it convinced frantzen that she was a good illustrator\nD. it was originally meant to be used in an advertisement", "why does the professor discuss frantzen's difficulties as a young painter\nA. he wants to point out mistakes that young artists commonly make\nB. he thinks her example can inspire the students in their own lives\nC. her difficulties remind him of the difficulties he himself experienced as a young girl\nD. her difficulties are the subject of some of the paintings in the gallery that the students will visit", "before the use of uranium lead analysis , where did most geologists think the grand canyon sandstone came from\nA. an ancient lake located in the american southwest\nB. a desert that once connected two continents\nC. sands carried by a river from the appalachian mountains\nD. a nearby mountain range that had flattened out over time", "according to the professor , what change has caused uranium lead dating to gain popularity recently\nA. it can be performed outside a laboratory\nB. it can now be done more efficiently\nC. it no longer involves radioactive elements\nD. it can be used in fields other than geology", "what does the professor mainly discuss\nA. the difference in age among american mountain ranges\nB. the importance of a technique used for dating geological materials\nC. the recent discovery of an ancient canyon\nD. a comparison of various minerals used for dating", "why does the professor talk about the breaking apart of earth's continents\nA. to give another example of how uranium lead dating might be useful\nB. to explain how the grand canyon was formed\nC. to demonstrate how difficult uranium lead dating is\nD. to disprove a theory about the age of earth's first mountain ranges", "what is the second lecture mainly about\nA. art in the neolithic period\nB. the site of a neolithic town\nC. methods of making stone tools\nD. the domestication of plants and animals by early farmers", "what does the professor say about the entrances to the horses in catalhoyuk\nA. they were in the roof\nB. they were usually kept closed\nC. they allowed smoke to escape from the house\nD. they stood opposite one another across narrow streets", "what does the professor say about catalhoyuk graves\nA. the graves contained precious stones\nB. many people were buried in each grave\nC. the grave were located under the house floors\nD. the graves contained ashes rather than bones", "what does the professor imply about the tools used by the people of catalhoyuk\nA. they were made of stone that came from catalhoyuk\nB. they were among the sharpest tools available at the time\nC. they were often used in religious rituals\nD. they were used primarily for agriculture", "what are three things the professor says about the artwork of catalhoyuk\nA. it was clearly important to the catalhoyuk religion\nB. it became covered with soot\nC. it often shows farmers at work\nD. its significance is unknown", "what does the professor think of the idea that the inhabitants of catalhoyuk deliberately arranged their house so that they could live near their ancestors'sgraves\nA. she thinks it is a good guess , but only a guess\nB. she thinks some evidence supports it , but other evidence contradicts it\nC. she thinks that further excavations will soon disprove it\nD. she thinks that it is not appropriate to make such guesses about the distant past", "according to the case study , why are marmots ideal for observation\nA. they do not hide from humans\nB. they reside in many regions throughout north america\nC. they are active in open areas during the day\nD. their burrows are easy to locate", "what is the main topic of the last lecture\nA. the types of habitats marmots prefer\nB. methods of observing marmot behavior\nC. feeding habits of some marmot species\nD. differences in behavior between marmot species", "what reason does the professor give for the difference in marmot behaviour patterns\nA. type of food available\nB. the size of the population\nC. interaction with other marmot species\nD. adaptations to the climate"], "outputs": ["A", "C", "C", "B", "B", "D", "B", "B", "A", "B", "C", "C", "B", "D", "A", "C", "D", "D"], "input": "ok ,  i'm going to begin this lecture by giving you your next assignment well ,  the exhibit that i want you to attend is coming up it's already started in fact ,  but it'll be at the gallery for the next month ,  which should give you plenty of time to complete this assignment the name of the artist exhibiting there is rose frantzen frantzen's work may be unfamiliar to you since she's a relatively young artist but she's got a very unusual style ,  compared to some of the artists we've looked at this term but anyway ,  frantzen's style is what she herself calls realistic impressionism so you've probably studied both of these movements separately ,  separate movements ,  realism and impressionism ,  in some of your art history courses well ,  impressionism started in the late 19th century um the basic impressionist style was very different from earlier styles it didn't depict scenes or models exactly as they looked um  impressionist painters tended to apply paint really thickly ,  and in big brushstrokes ,  so the texture of the canvas was rough good well ,  a lot of impressionist artists painted everyday scenes ,  like people on the streets and in cafes ,  uh ,  lots of nature scenes ,  especially landscapes good so when you go to the exhibit ,  i really want you to take a close look at a certain painting it's a farm scene and you will see it right as you enter the gallery the reason i think this painting is so important is that it stresses the impressionist aspect of frantzen's style it's an outdoor scene ,  an everyday scene it's kind of bleak ,  but you can really see those broad brushstrokes and the blurry lines the colors aren't quite realistic the sky is kind of ,  well an unnatural pinkish yellow and the fence in the foreground is blue ,  but somehow the overall scene gives an impression of a cold ,  bleak winter day on a farm so that's the impressionist side of her work oh ,  and speaking about farms ,  that reminds me one interesting thing i read about franzten is that when she first moved back to iowa after living abroad ,  she often visited this place in her town called the sales barn and the sales barn ,  it was basically this place where the local farmers bought and sold their cattle ,  their farm animals and the reason frantzen went there ,  and she later on would visit other places like dance halls ,  was to observe people and the ways that they moved she really found that this helped her work   that it gave her an understanding of body movements and actions ,  how humans move ,  and stand still ,  what their postures were like ,  too um  real honest depictions of subject matter ,  pretty unidealized stuff ,  and pretty everyday subject matter ,  too good one other painting i really want you to look at is of a young woman surrounded by pumpkins you will notice that the woman's face is so realistic looking that it's almost like a photograph the woman's nose is a little less than perfect and her hair is kind of messed up this is realism but then ,  the background of the painting ,  this woman with the pumpkins is wrapped in a blanket of broad thick brushstrokes ,  and ,  it's all kinds of zigzagging brushstrokes and lines ,  kind of chaotic almost when you look at it close and there are vibrant colors there's lots of orange ,  with little hints of an electric blue peeking out i find frantzen to be a very accessible artist i mean ,  some artists ,  to appreciate them ,  you have to know their life story but here's a little bit about rose frantzen's life anyway she attended art school ,  but was told by one of her instructors that she was not good at illustration ,  that she should go into advertising instead so she took advertising classes and fine arts classes too ,  until she was convinced by the head of an advertising agency that her work was really good ,  that she could be an artist but of course ,  it's not as easy as that ,  and so frantzen had to paint other people's portraits at places like art fairs just to make money to buy paint for her more serious art work no matter what ,  she never stopped painting and now ,  frantzen is doing extremely well and her work is being shown all over the country so i think most of us would be discouraged if we had to face challenges and difficulties like that but what's important is that you keep at it that you don't give up that's what is really important to remember\n\n\nok ,  let's get started great today i want to talk about a way in which we are able to determine how old a piece of land ,  or some other geologic feature is   dating techniques i'm going to talk about a particular dating technique good dating is key to good analysis in other words ,  if you want to know how a land formation was formed ,  the first thing you probably want to know is how old it is it's fundamental uh  take the grand canyon for instance now ,  we geologists thought we had a pretty good idea of how the grand canyon in the southwestern united states was formed we knew that it was formed from sandstone that solidified somewhere between 15  and 3   million years ago before it solidified ,  it was just regular sand essentially it was part of a vast desert and until just recently ,  most of us thought the sand had come from an ancient mountain range fairly close by that flattened out over time that's been the conventional wisdom among geologists for quite some time but now we've learned something different ,  and quite surprising ,  using a technique called uranium lead dating i should say that uranium lead dating has been around for quite a while but there have been some recent refinements i will get into this in a minute anyway ,  uranium lead dating has produced some surprises two geologists discovered that about half of the sand from the grand canyon was actually once part of the appalachian mountains that's really eye opening news ,  since the appalachian mountain range is ,  of course ,  thousands of kilometers to the east of the grand canyon the theory is that huge rivers and wind carried the sand west where it mixed in with the sand that was already there well ,  this was a pretty revolutionary finding um  and it was basically because of uranium lead dating well ,  as everyone in this class should know ,  we usually look at the grain type within sandstone ,  meaning the actual particles in the sandstone ,  to determine where it came from you can do other things too ,  like look at the wind or water that brought the grains to their location and figure out which way it was flowing but that's only useful up to a point ,  and that's not what these two geologists did uranium lead dating allowed them to go about it in an entirely different way what they did was  they looked at the grains of zircon in the sandstone zircon is a material that contains radioactive uranium ,  which makes it very useful for dating purposes zircon starts off as molten magma ,  the hot lava from volcanoes this magma then crystallizes and when zircon crystallizes ,  the uranium inside it begins to change into lead so if you measure the amount of lead in the zircon grain ,  you can figure out when the grain was formed after that ,  you can determine the age of zircon from different mountain ranges once you do that ,  you can compare the age of the zircon in the sandstone in your sample to the age of the zircon in the mountains if the age of the zircon matches the age of one of the mountain ranges ,  then it means the sandstone actually used to be part of that particular mountain range good so ,  in this case ,  uranium lead dating was used to establish that half of the sandstone in the samples was formed at the same time the granite in the appalachian mountains was formed so because of this ,  this new way of doing uranium lead dating ,  we've been able to determine that one of our major assumptions about the grand canyon was wrong like i said before ,  uranium lead dating has been with us for a while but ,  um  until recently ,  in order to do it ,  you really had to study many individual grains and it took a long time before you got results it just wasn't very efficient and it wasn't very accurate but technical advances have cut down on the number of grains you have to study ,  so you get your results faster so i'll predict that uranium lead dating is going to become an increasingly popular dating method there are a few pretty exciting possibilities for uranium lead dating here is one that comes to mind well ,  with uranium lead dating ,  we could prove that more conclusively if they show evidence of once having been joined ,  that could really tell us a lot about the early history of the planet's geology\n\n\nok ,  we've been talking about early agriculture in the near east so let's concentrate on one site and see what we can learn from it let's look at catalhoyuk um  i'd better write that down catalhoyuk ,  that's about as close as we get in english it's turkish ,  really the site's in modern day turkey ,  and who knows what the original inhabitants called it anyway ,  uh catalhoyuk wasn't the first agricultural settlement in the near east ,  but it was pretty early ,  settled about 9 ,     years ago in the neolithic period and    um   the settlement  uh  town really ,  lasted about a thousand years and grew to a size of about eight or ten thousand people that certainly makes it one of the largest towns in the world at that time one of the things that make the settlement of this size impressive is the time period it's the neolithic ,  remember ,  the late stone age so the people that lived there had only stone tools ,  no metals so everything they accomplished ,  like building this town ,  they did with just stone ,  plus wood ,  bricks ,  that sort of thing but you got to remember that it wasn't just any stone they had ,  they had obsidian and um   obsidian is a black ,  volcanic ,  well ,  almost like glass it flakes very nicely into really sharp points the sharpest tools of the entire stone age were made of obsidian and uh   the people of catalhoyuk got theirs from further inland ,  from central turkey ,  traded for it ,  probably anyway ,  what i wanna focus on is the way the town was built the houses are all rectangular ,  one storey ,  made of sun dried bricks but what's really interesting is that there are no spaces between them ,  no streets in other words ,  and so generally no doors on the houses either people walked around on the roofs and entered the house through a hatchway on the roof ,  down a wooden ladder you can still see the diagonal marks of the ladders in the plaster on the inside walls once you were in the house ,  there would be one main room and a couple of small rooms for storage the main room had the hearths ,  for cooking and for heat it would've been pretty cold during the winters and it also looks like they made their tools near the fire there tends to be a lot of obsidian flakes and chips in the hearth ashes ,  but no chimney the smoke just went out the same hatchway that people used for going in and out themselves so there would have been an open fire inside the house with only one hole in the roof to let the smoke out you and i would have found it a bit too smoky in there you can see on the walls ,  which they plastered and decorated with paintings they ended up with a layer of black soot on them ,  and so did people's lungs the bones found in the graves show a layer of soot on the inside of the ribs and that's another unusual feature of catalhoyuk ,  the burial sites the graves have all been found under the houses ,  right under the floors and it maybe this burial custom that explains why the houses were packed in so tightly without streets i mean ,  you might think it was for protection or something ,  but there has been no evidence found yet of any violent attack that would indicate that kind of danger it maybe they wanted to live as near as possible to their ancestors  graves and be buried near them themselves but it makes a good point based on excavations ,  we can know the layout of the houses and the location of the graves ,  but we're only guessing when we tried to say why they did it that way that's the way it is with archeology you are dealing with the physical remains that people left behind we have no sure access to what they thought and how they felt about things i mean it's interesting to speculate and the physical artifacts can give us clues ,  but there is a lot we can't really know so ,  for instance ,  their art they painted on the plastered walls and usually they painted hunting scenes with wild animals in them now they did hunt and they also raised cereal crops and kept sheep ,  but we don't know why so many of the paintings are of hunting scenes that's the kind of thing we can only guess at based on clues and hopefully ,  further excavation of catalhoyuk will yield more clues but we'll probably never know for sure\n\n\nfor today's discussion ,  we'll review the case study on how some animals have behaviorally adapted to their environments now you had to read about two animal species ,  the eastern marmot and the olympic marmot marmots are rodents they are large ground squirrels ,  about the size of an average house cat and they live in a variety of habitats and even though they spend the significant portion of the year hibernating ,  according to this case study ,  marmots are still considered excellent subjects for animal behavioral studies well ,  when they are not hibernating ,  you can find them in open areas uh huh ,  so first let's discuss the eastern marmots they reside throughout the eastern region of north america where there is a temperate climate ,  where the growing season lasts for at least five months of the year ,  which is when they do all their mating ,  playing and eating oh ,  i see at first i wasn't sure what growing season meant ,  just from the reading but now i get it oh ,  uh  i'm sorry but no it has nothing to do with that it's not about the time it takes for eastern marmots to grow it's when the food is available that is when it's not covered in snow and there is no frost covering the grass and ,  umm ,  vegetative parts of a plant's herbs and the flowers the marmots like to eat well ,  they are really territorial ,  and loners ,  and just so aggressive even with other eastern marmots and their mating ritual is just so impersonal now when they emerge in the spring from hibernation ,  the mating process begins for them ,  well ,  they come together to mate and then they go their separate ways then about six to eight weeks after birth ,  the offspring leave their mothers well ,  it's not as if they aren't ready for the real world because they are remember ,  they mature quickly and the weather's nice also they live in open fields where there is lots of edible vegetation so roughly six weeks after birth ,  eastern marmots are just old enough to take their chances of surviving in the temperate environment oh ,  i get it since the climate's not too bad ,  the eastern marmots don't have to rely on each other too much and they really don't need to stay together as a family to survive either uh ha well ,  they live together as a family and take care of their young until they are at least two years old they're really friendly with each other and what i really like is that they even have greeting ceremonies and they are not at all aggressive and territorial like the eastern marmots that seems so bizarre well ,  the olympic marmots inhabit meadows high in the olympic mountains where the weather conditions are much harsher so there is a lot more wind and snow the growing season only lasts about two to three months so in that much shorter period of time ,  all the olympic marmots ,  male and female ,  eat ,  play ,  work and nurture the young together because the climate is so harsh ,  cooperation increases the survival rate of the olympic marmots they keep their young at home until they are physically able to survive on their own this could explain why the social behavior of the olympic marmots is so unlike that of the eastern marmots", "source": "toefl_tpo", "evaluation": "exam"}
{"instructions": ["according to the professor , why do beavers generally forage at night\nA. beavers are safe from predators if they forage at night\nB. foraging at night requires less energy than foraging in the daytime\nC. beavers stay with their offspring during the daytime\nD. beavers face less competition for food from other animals during the night", "what differences between aspen trees and ash trees does the professor point out\nA. aspen trees are easier to transport\nB. aspen trees provide better wood for construction\nC. aspen trees provide less nutrition for beavers\nD. aspen trees have more overall value to beavers", "what does the professor say about the cutting down of large trees\nA. beavers generally prefer cutting down large trees to small trees\nB. beavers generally do not travel long distances to cut down large trees\nC. beavers will not cut large trees of certain species\nD. beavers use large trees mainly for the purpose fo building shelters", "what does the professor identify as the two central issues involved in beavers'sbehavior\nA. how far from home to forage\nB. how to cope with competition\nC. what size tree to cut down\nD. what time of year material for construction is available", "what is the first lecture mainly about\nA. different foraging strategies among animals\nB. methods beavers use to gather building materials\nC. decisions beavers make about where to live\nD. choices beavers face when foraging", "why does the professor discuss clara schumann\nA. she influenced the design of the modern piano\nB. she grew up in an environment that encouraged female musicians\nC. her musical talents were inherited from her parents\nD. her background and robert schumann's background were similar", "what is the first lecture mainly about\nA. professor pianists of the\nB. the influence of the piano on music and society\nC. a comparison of the piano and harpsichord\nD. a comparison of musical styles before and after the invention of the piano", "according to the professor , why did the piano become more popular than the harpsichord\nA. piano music was easier to compose than harpsichord music\nB. piano music was better for accompanying the popular new dances of the\nC. the piano had a more attractive size and shape than the harpsichord\nD. the piano could express a wider range of emotions than the harpsichord", "why does the professor describe how a piano works\nA. to explain why pianos are easy to play\nB. to explain why pianos are expensive to construct\nC. to explain why pianos are not classified as string instruments\nD. to explain why pianos do not require frequent tuning", "what does the professor mention as influences on musical styles before the invention of the piano\nA. the preferences of particular patrons\nB. the low numbers of available instruments\nC. increase in the number of music schools\nD. reductions in the costs of producing instruments", "according to the professor , what are two ways in which stained glass windows made in the sixteen century differed from those made in earlier centuries\nA. the way the glass was colored\nB. the role played by lead strips\nC. the scenes that were depicted\nD. the way glass pieces were cut", "what is the second lecture mainly about\nA. the images in stained glass windows\nB. the history of stained glass art\nC. the importance of religious art during the middle ages\nD. techniques for making glass during the middle ages", "what are two points the professor makes about stained glass windows made during the middle ages\nA. they typically were small size\nB. the glass was colored during the glassmaking process\nC. they were used mainly for churches\nD. they had simple designs", "during the middle ages , what was one of the first steps that artists used in making a stained glass window\nA. they drew the design onto the top of a table\nB. they created models of the design with lead strips\nC. they drew an outline of the design directly onto a piece of glass\nD. they painted the design on paper", "what does the professor imply contributed to the popularity of tiffany glass\nA. the use of lead compounds to enhance its colors\nB. the reuse of stained glass from old church windows\nC. the invention of electric lighting\nD. a new process for painting glass", "what does the presence of gypsum in lechuguilla cave indicate\nA. the cave was not formed by flowing water\nB. the cave is no longer forming\nC. bacteria are present in high concentrations inside the cave\nD. no type of acid was involved in the formation of the cave", "what can be inferred from the fact that lechuguilla cave is no longer forming\nA. the cave has stopped attracting visitors\nB. the cave no longer contains any limestone\nC. the air in the cave is safer to breathe now than it was in the past\nD. gypsum deposits inside the cave are growing thicker", "what is the main purpose of the last lecture\nA. to explain the various ways that sulfuric acid is involved in the formation of caves\nB. to describe caves and other geologic formations in national parks\nC. to use lechuguilla cave as an example of how most caves form\nD. to discuss the formation and characteristics of an unusual type of cave", "according to the professor , what substance found in surface water is important for the formation of typical limestone caves\nA. gypsum\nB. oxygen\nC. carbonic acid\nD. sulfuric acid"], "outputs": ["B", "D", "B", "C", "D", "B", "B", "D", "C", "A", "B", "B", "C", "A", "C", "A", "C", "D", "C"], "input": "ok let's continue our discussion about animal behavior by talking about decisions that animals face ,  complex ones animals ,  even insects ,  carry out what look like very complex decision making processes the question is how i mean no one really thinks that ,  say a bee goes through weighing the pros and cons of pollinating this flower or that flower but then how do animals solve complex questions ,  questions that seem to require decision making the answer we'll propose of course is that their behavior is largely a matter of natural selection as an example ,  let's look at foraging behavior among beavers beavers eat plants ,  mostly trees and they also use trees and tree branches to construct their homes in streams and lakes so when they do forage for food and for shelter materials ,  they have to leave their homes and go up on land where their main predators are so there are a number of choices that have to be made about foraging so for example ,  um   they need to decide what kind of tree they should cut down some trees have higher nutritional value than others ,  and some are better for building material ,  and some are good for both   um  aspen trees beavers peel off the bark to eat and they also use the branches for building their shelters so aspens do double duty but ash trees ,  beavers use ash trees only for construction another decision is when to forage for food first ,  let's say a beaver could get the same amount of wood from a single large tree ,  one that has lots of branches ,  as it could get from three small trees if it chooses one large tree ,  it'll have to carry that large piece of wood back home ,  and lugging a big piece of wood 4  or 5  yards is hard work ,  takes a lot of energy of course it'll have to make only one trip to get the wood back to the water on the other hand ,  if it goes for three small trees instead ,  it will take less energy per tree to get the wood back home ,  but it'll have to make three trips back and forth for the three trees and presumably ,  the more often it wanders from home ,  the more it's likely to be exposed to predators another critical issue and it's related to the first ,  to the size issue ,  is how far from the water should it go to get trees beavers certainly go farther from the water to get an aspen tree than for an ash tree that reflects their relative values now i would have thought the bigger thetree ,  the farther the beaver would be willing to travel for it if you're going to travel far ,  make the trip worth it buy bringing back most wood possible but actually ,  the opposite is true beavers will cut down only large trees that are close to the water they will travel far only to cut down certain small trees that they can cut down quickly and drag back home quickly generally ,  the farther they go from the water ,  the smaller the tree they will cut down they're willing to make more trips to haul back less wood ,  which carries a greater risk of being exposed to predators so it looks as though beavers are less interested in minimizing their exposure to predators and more interested in saving energy when foraging for wood ,  which may also explain why beavers forage primarily during the evenings no one believes a beaver consciously weighs the pros and cons of each of these elements the answer that some give is that their behavior has evolved over time it's been shaped by constraints over vast stretches of time ,  all of which comes down to the fact that the best foraging strategy for beavers isn't the one that yields the most food or wood it's the one that results in the most descendants ,  the most offspring so let's discuss how this idea works\n\n\nup until now in our discussions and readings about the baroque and early classical periods , we've been talking about the development of musical styles and genres within therelatively narrow social context of its patronage by the upper classes composers ,  after all ,  had to earn a living and those who were employed in the services of a specific patron ,  well ,  i don't have to spell it out for you ,  the likes and dislikes of that patron ,  this would've had an effect on what was being composed and performed now ,  of course ,  there were many other influences on composers ,  um ,  such as the technical advances we've seen and the development of some of the instruments ,  uh ,  you remember the transverse flute ,  the clarinet and so on but i think if i were asked to identify a single crucial development in european music of this time ,  it would be the invention of the piano ,  which ,  interestingly enough also had a significant effect on european society of that time and i'll get to that in a minute now ,  as we know ,  keyboard instruments existed long before the piano   the organ ,  which dates back to the middle ages ,  as do other keyboard instruments ,  such as the harpsichord which is still popular today with some musicians but none of these has had as profound an impact as the piano uh ,  the piano was invented in italy in 17 9 the word piano is short for pianoforte ,  a combination of the italian words for soft and loud now ,  unlike the harpsichord which came before it ,  the piano is a percussion instrument you see ,  the harpsichord is actually classified as a string instrument ,  since pressing a key of a harpsichord causes a tiny quill that's connected to the key to pluck the strings that are inside the instrument ,  much the same as a guitar pick plucks the strings of a guitar but pressing the keys of a piano causes tiny felt covered hammers to strike the strings inside the instrument ,  like drumsticks striking the head of a drum this striking action is why the piano is a percussion instrument instead of a string instrument well ,  the percussive effect of those little hammers means that the pianist ,  unlike the harpsichordist ,  can control the dynamics of the sound   how softly or loudly each note is struck ,  hence the name ,  pianoforte ,  soft and loud now ,  artistically for both composers and performers this was a major turning point this brand new instrument ,  capable of producing loud and soft tones ,  greatly expanded the possibilities for conveying emotion this capacity for increased expressiveness ,  in fact ,  was essential to the romantic style that dominated 19th century music but i'm getting ahead of myself um ,  before we get back to the musical impact of this development ,  i wanna take a look at the social impact that i mentioned earlier now ,  in the late 17 's and the earlier 1 8 's ,  the development of the piano coincided with the growth of the middle class in western europe of course folk music ,  traditional songs and dances had always been part of everyday life but as mass production techniques were refined in the 19th century ,  the price of pianos dropped to the point that a larger proportion of the population could afford to own them as pianos became more available ,  they brought classical music ,  the music which previously had been composed only for the upper classes ,  into the lives of the middle class people as well one way in particular that we can see the social impact of this instrument is its role in the lives of women of the time previously ,  it was quite rare for a woman to perform on anything ,  but maybe a harp or maybe she sang but suddenly in the 19th century it became quite acceptable ,  even ,  to some extent ,  almost expected for a middle class european woman to be able to play the piano ,  partly because among upper middle class women it was a sign of refinement but it was also an excellent way for some women to earn money by giving piano lessons and some women ,  those few who had exceptional talent and the opportunity to develop it ,  their lives were dramatically affected later we'll be listening to works by a composer named robert schumann but let's now talk about his wife clara schumann clara schumann was born in germany in 1819 she grew up surrounded by pianos her father sold pianos and both her parents were respected piano teachers she learned to play the instrument when she was a small child and gave her first public recital at age 9 clara grew up to become a well known and respected piano virtuoso ,  a performer of extraordinary skill who not only gave concerts across europe ,  but also was one of the first important female composers for the instrument\n\n\nok ,  now um ,  a sort of paradigmatic art form of the middle ages was stained glass art stained glass of course is simply glass that has been colored and cut into pieces and re assembled to form a picture or a decorative design to truly experience the beauty of this decorative glass you should see it with light passing through it ,  especially sunlight ,  which is why stained glass is usually used for windows but of course it has other uses ,  especially nowadays um ,  anyway the art of making stained glass windows developed in europe ,  urn ,  during the middle ages and was closely related to church building in the early 11 's a church building method was developed that reduced the stress on the walls so more space could be used for window openings allowing for large and quite elaborate window designs back then ,  the artists made their own glass ,  but first they came up with the design paper was scarce and expensive ,  so typically they drew the design onto a white tabletop they'd draw the principal outline but also outline the shape of each piece of glass to be used and indicate its color now in the window itself the pieces of glass would be held together by strips of lead so in the drawing the artists would also indicate the location of the lead strips then you could put a big piece of glass on the tabletop and see the design right through it and use it to guide the cutting of the glass into smaller pieces well ,  lead is strong and flexible so it's ideal for joining pieces of glasses cut in different shapes and sizes but up to the 15th century the lead strips also helped create the design they were worked into the window as part of the composition they were used to outline figures to show boundaries just like you might use solid lines in a pencil drawing well up until the 16th century stained glass was colored during the glass making process itself you got specific colors by adding metallic compounds to the other glass making ingredients so if you wanted red you added copper ,  if you wanted green you added iron you just added these compounds to the other ingredients that the glass was made of yes ,  at least up until the 16th century then they started   um    you started to get painted glass painted glass windows are still referred to as stained glass but the colors were actually painted directly onto clear glass after the glass was made so um    with this kind of stained glass ,  you could paint a piece of glass with more than one color yes ,  with really large windows it took more than one piece of glass ,  so you still needed lead strips to hold the pieces together but the painters actually tried to hide them so it was different from before when the lead strips were part of the design and it is different ,  because with painted glass the idea of light corning through to create the magical effect wasn't the focus any more the paintwork was and painted glass windows became very popular in the 19th century ,  people started using them in private houses and public buildings unfortunately ,  many of the original stained glass windows were thought to be old fashioned and they were actually destroyed ,  replaced by painted glass yes ,  if only they had known uh ,  and it's not just that old stained glass is really valuable today ,  we lost possibly great artwork but luckily there was a revival of the early techniques in the mid i 8 's and artists went back to creating colored glass and using the lead strips in their designs the effects are much more beautiful in the 19th century ,  louis tiffany came up with methods to create beautiful effects without having to paint the glass he layered pieces of glass and used thin copper strips instead of lead ,  which let him make these really intricate flowery designs for stained glass ,  which he used in lampshades these of course took advantage of the new innovation of electric lighting electric light bulbs don't give quite the same effect as sunlight streaming through stained glass ,  but it's close so layered glass ,  tiffany glass ,  became very popular and still is today so let's look at some examples of different types of stained glass from each era\n\n\nnow there are some pretty interesting caves in parts of the western united states ,  especially in national parks there is one part that has over a hundred caves ,  including some of the largest ones in the world one of the more interesting ones is called lechuguilla cave lechuguilla has been explored a lot in recent decades it's a pretty exciting place i think it was mentioned only briefly in your books it's the deepest limestone cave in the u 's that's right it's one of the longest and deepest limestone caves not just in the country but in the world that's it yeah ,  what happens is you have deep underground oil deposits and there arebacteria here let me draw a diagram part of the limestone rock layer is permeated by water from below those curly lines are supposed to be cracks in the rock below the water table and rock is oil bacteria feed on this oil and release hydrogen sulfide gas this gas is hydrogen sulfide ,  rises up and mixes with oxygen in the underground water that sits in the cracks and fissures in the limestone sulfuric acid eats away at limestone very aggressively so you get bigger cracks and then passageways being formed along the openings in the rock and it's all underground yes ,  so there's two kinds of limestone caves in about 9  percent of them ,  you have water from the surface ,  streams ,  waterfall or whatever   moving water that flows through cracks found in the limestone it's the moving water itself that wears away at the rock and makes passageways also ,  in surface water ,  there is a weak acid ,  carbonic acid ,  not sulfuric acid ,  but carbonic acid that helps dissolve the rock with a little help from this carbonic acid ,  moving water forms most of the world's limestone caves when i was researching this for a study a few years ago ,  i visited a couple of these typical limestone caves ,  and they were all very wet ,  you know ,  from streams and rivers this flowing watercarved out the caves and the structures inside them dry as a bone well ,  that might be a bit of an exaggeration but it's safe to say that it's sulfuric acid and not moving water that formed lechuguilla cave and those few other ones like it in fact ,  there is no evidence that flowing water has even gone in or out of the cave so ,  it's like a maze you have passageways all around there are wide passages ,  narrow ones at all different depths ,  like underground tunnels in the limestone and ,  since they were created underground and not from flowing surface water ,  not all these passageways have an opening to the outside world and    and there is other evidence thatflowing water wasn't involved in lechuguilla ah ,  leaves a chemical residue    um yep ,  you'll find lots of gypsum deposited at lechuguilla and ,  as we know ,  gypsum is soluble in water so if there were flowing water in the cave ,  it would dissolve the gypsum this is part of what led us to the realization that lechuguilla is in that small group of waterless caves and lechuguilla is pretty much dormant now it's not really forming any more but ,  there is other ones like it ,  for example ,  in mexico ,  that are forming and when cave researchers go to explore them ,  they see and smell ,  the sulfuric acid and gases of  er  phew  now ,  something else ,  think of rotten eggs and ,  it's not just the smell explorers even need to wear special masks to protect themselves from the gases in these caves paul well ,  the formations    there is really something there's such variety there ,  like nothing anywhere else in the world ,  some of them are elaborate looking ,  like decorations and a lot of them are made of gypsum and could be up to 2  feet long it's pretty impressive", "source": "toefl_tpo", "evaluation": "exam"}
{"instructions": ["what did calcite deposits from devils hole reveal\nA. inaccurate information about long term climate changes\nB. evidence that contradicted milankovitch's hypothesis\nC. evidence that climate changes occur only locally\nD. variations in earth's orbit that had little impact on climate", "what is the significance of the evidence found on the ocean floor\nA. it negated earlier evidence that milankovitch found\nB. it led the development of new methods to measure global climate changes\nC. it helped milankovitch first formulate his hypothesis\nD. it confirmed milankovitch's hypothesis", "what is the first lecture mainly about\nA. a hypothesis that explains how changes in earth's motions affect climate\nB. a hypothesis that explains why the shape of earth's orbit varies over time\nC. reasons it is difficult to find evidence to support hypotheses about the climate\nD. analyses of the accuracy of data collected in different ways", "why does the professor compare earth's movements to a watch\nA. to clarify a common misunderstanding\nB. to show in what way earth is similar to a watch\nC. to emphasize the regularity of earth's movements\nD. to connect the concepts of orbits and time", "why does the professor mention northern hemisphere glaciers\nA. they have a significant effect on the axial tilt of earth\nB. they play a moderating role on earth's climate\nC. their formation could be affected by changes in earth's orbit\nD. their melting could result in longer warm seasons", "what are two points the professor makes about the administrative calendar\nA. it included more religious festivals than did the other calendar\nB. it was used for scheduling tax payments\nC. it had the same number of days every year\nD. it used the moon to determine the beginning of the year", "why was the helical rising if sirius important to the egyptians\nA. it helped determine the beginning of the new year\nB. it was used to calculate the length of the month\nC. it marked the beginning of harvest time\nD. it indicated when the nile would flood", "what is the second  lecture mainly about\nA. differences between modern and ancient calendars\nB. the importance of astronomy in egyptian religion\nC. the timekeeping system of ancient egypt\nD. how to use agriculture as a method of timekeeping", "why does the professor mention the names of the seasons in ancient egypt\nA. to explain the importance of religion\nB. to emphasize the significant of the nile river\nC. to indicate when different types of crops were harvested\nD. to describe early discoveries in astronomy", "once the egyptians realized the significance of the heliacal rising of sirius , what change did they make to their agricultural calendar\nA. they made each month exactly\nB. they shortened the length of the year\nC. they added a religious festival date to celebrate the heliacal rising of sirius\nD. they allowed the number of months in the year to vary", "what is the third lecture mainly about\nA. different kinds of color vision in sea animals\nB. differences in appearance between various species of octopus\nC. ways that octopuses attract their prey\nD. ways that octopuses protect themselves from predators", "why does the professor first mention proteus\nA. to explain how the octopus got its scientific name\nB. to introduce the octopus'sexceptional abilities\nC. to point out that the octopus played an important role in greek mythology\nD. to provide an example of a mythological character that was part animal and part human", "what does the professor say about the function of the papillae\nA. they produce dye in different colors\nB. they propel the octopus through the water\nC. they change the texture of the octopus'skin\nD. they help the octopus contract into a smaller shape", "how does an octopus change color to match the colors in its environment\nA. by raising its papillae\nB. by releasing colored ink\nC. by reflecting light from its environment\nD. by contracting the muscles around its chromatophores", "what two examples does the professor mention to describe the octopus'sability to change its shape\nA. a small round stone\nB. the leaves of a plant\nC. a cloud of ink\nD. a piece of coral", "what are two disadvantages of radiocarbon dating\nA. it cannot be used for dating art made of organic material\nB. it causes damage to the material being analyzed\nC. it can be used for dating only portable art\nD. it cannot prove when a piece of art was made", "what is the professor's opinion about the practice of dating a piece of art by analyzing its artistic style\nA. it provides the strongest type of dating evidence\nB. it is more useful for some types of art than others\nC. use of the practice has improved over the last century\nD. some analysts make questionable assumption when using it", "according to the professor , when might stratigraphy provide misleading information about a portable object\nA. when the object has decomposed over time\nB. when the object is older than the site at which it was found\nC. when the object is found in the lowest soil layer of a site\nD. when the object was broken during excavation", "how does the woman summarize the professor's main point in the last talk\nA. by drawing a parallel with a process common to the legal field\nB. by repeating a comment the professor made at the beginning of class\nC. by referring to a study that supports the professor's theory\nD. by comparing the professor's remarks with statements in the textbook"], "outputs": ["B", "D", "A", "A", "C", "C", "D", "C", "B", "D", "D", "B", "C", "D", "B", "D", "D", "B", "A"], "input": "ok ,  so we have been talking about theories that deal with the effects of human activity on the climate but today i'd like to talk a little bit about other theories that can explain variations in climate and one of the best known is called the milankovitch hypothesis it says that variations in earth's movements ,  specifically in its orbit around the sun ,  these variations lead to differences in the amount of solar energy that reaches the earth and it is these differences in the amount of energy that's reaching earth from the sun ,  it is what causes variations in earth's climate ok ,  a lot of people think of earth's orbit around the sun as being perfectly circular ,  as smooth and as regular as ,  say ,  the way that hands move on a well  made watch ,  but it just doesn't work that way you are probably aware that the earth's orbit around the sun ,  it is not shaped like a perfect circle it is more of an oval ,  it is elliptical but the shape of this orbit isn't consistent ,  it varies over time ,  over a period of about a thousand years sometimes it is a little more circular ,  sometimes it is more elliptical and when earth's orbit is more elliptical ,  earth is actually closer to the sun during part of the year which makes earth ,  and in particular ,  the northern hemisphere ,  warmer well ,  because most of the planet's glaciers are in the northern hemisphere ,  and if it gets too warm ,  then glaciers will stop forming and we've already talked about how that affects earth's overall temperature the second movement involved in the hypothesis has to do with axial tilt the tilt of earth's axis ,  that imaginery pole that runs through the center of the earth and depending on the angle it tilts at ,  the seasons can be more or less severe it makes winters cooler and summers warmer ,  or what some might say it is doing now ,  it makes summers less hot ,  and more importantly ,  the winters less cold which just like what i mentioned before ,  can also stop ,  prevent glaciers from forming ,  or cause them to melt there is a third movement the hypothesis covers called precession precession ,  basically is the change in the direction of earth's axis of rotation it will take me a million years to explain even just the basics of this movement as precession is quite complex and all these details are way beyond our scope what's important for you to understand is that these three movements ,  well ,  they are cyclical ,  and they work together to form ,  to produce complex but regular variations in earth's climate ,  and lead to the growth or decline of glaciers now ,  when milankovitch first proposed this theory in the 192's ,  many of his colleagues were skeptical milankovitch didn't have any proof actually there wouldn't be any evidence to support his hypothesis until the 197's ,  when oceanographers were able to drill deep into the seafloor and collect samples ,  samples which were then analyzed by geologists and from these samples they were able to put together a history of ocean temperatures going back hundreds of thousands of years ,  and this showed that earth's climate had changed pretty much the way milankovitch's hypothesis suggested it would so this evidence was pretty strong support for the milankovitch hypothesis and by the 198's ,  most people accepted this theory however ,  in the late 198's ,  some scientists were exploring devil 's hole ,  which is basically an extensive water filled cave ,  far from the ocean ,  in nevada2western united states over millions of years ,  groundwater left deposits of a mineral  ,  on the rock within devil's hole and by studying these clacite deposits ,  we can determine the climate conditions ,  the temperatures over the last half million years well ,  the devil 's hole findings contradicted the ones obtained during the 197's ,  so basically the question was ,  were the ages of one or both the samples were wrong ,  or were scientists misunderstanding the significance of the evidence well ,  in the 199's ,  a new study was done on the two samples and the ocean floor samples were found to be correct ,  as were the samples from devil's hole and now it is generally believed that the sample from devil's hole correspond to variations in local climate ,  in the western united states ,  rather than global climate changes\n\n\nok ,  so one of the challenges that faced ancient civilizations like egypt was timekeeping ,  calendars when you have to grow food for whole cities of people ,  it is important to plant your crops at the right time and when you start having financial obligations ,  rents ,  taxes ,  you have to keep track of how often you pay so today we will look at how the egyptians adressed these problems in fact ,  they ended up using two calendars ,  one to keep track of the natural world ,  or their agriculture concerns ,  and another one ,  that was used to keep track of the business functions of the kingdom so let's take a look at the hows and whys of one ancient egyptian calendar system ,  starting with the nile river well ,  there's no other way to put it egyptian life basically revolved around the mysterious rise and fall of the river the success of their agriculture system depended upon them knowing when the river would change so ,  naturally ,  their first calendar was divided up into three seasons ,  each based on the river 's changes  inundation ,  subsidence and harvest the first season was the flooding ,  or inundation ,  when the nile valley was essentially submerged in water for a few months or so and afterwards during the season of subsidence ,  the water would subside ,  or recede ,  revealing a new layer of fertile black silt and allowing for the planting of various crops and finally the time of the year would arrive when the valley would produce crops ,  such as wheat ,  barley ,  fruit ,  all ready to harvest ok ,  so it was important to the ancient egyptians to know when their nile based seasons would occur ,  their way of life depended upon it now ,  the way they used to count time was based on the phases of the moon ,  which ,  regularly and predictably ,  goes through a cycle ,  starting with a new moon ,  then to a full moon ,  and back again to the new moon now this cycle wes then used to determine the length of their month so ,  um ,  one lunar cycle was one egyptian month ,  and about four of the months would constitute a season now ,  12 of these months was an approximately 354 day year so they had a 354 day agricultural calendar that was designed to help them determine when the nile would inunadate the land well ,  of course it had to be more complicated than that the average amount of time between floodings wasn't actually 354 days i mean ,  although it varies ,  the average was clearly longer than 354 days well ,  their astronomers had discovered that at a certain time of year the brightest star ,  sirius ,  would disappear actually ,  it'd be hidden in the glare of the sun and then ,  a couple of months later ,  one morning in the eartern sky just before dawn ,  sirius would reappear and it happened regularly ,  about every 365 days even more significantly ,  the reappearance of sirius would occur around the same time as the nile's flooding and this annual event is called a heliacal rising4the heliacal rising was a fair indicator of when the nile would flood the next new moon ,  after the heliacal rising of sirius ,  which happened in the last month of the calendar year ,  marked the new year and because the ancient egyptians were using the lunar cycle in combination with this heliacal rising ,  some years ended up having 12 lunar months ,  while others had 13 lunar calender months ,  if sirius didn't rise in the 12th month even though the length of the agricultural calendar still fluctuated ,  with some years having 12 months and others having 13 ,  it ended up being much more reliable than it was before they continually adjusted it to the heliacal rising of sirius ,  ensuring that they never got too far off in their seasons this new calendar was ideal ,  because ,  well ,  it worked well for agricultural purposes as well as for knowing when to have traditional religious festivals so ,  that was their first calendar they didn't think so for administrative purposes ,  it was very inconvenient to have years of different lengths so another calendar was introduced ,  an administrative one probably soon after 3 ,     bc ,  they declared a 365 day year ,  with 12 months per year ,  with exactly 3  days each month ,  with an extra 5 days at the end of each year this administrative calendar existed alongside the earlier agricultural and religious calendar that depended on the heliacal rising of sirius this administrative calendar was much easier to use for things like scheduling taxes and other things that had to be paid on time over time ,  the calendar got out of step with seasons and the flooding of the nile ,  but for bureaucratic purposes ,  they didn't mind\n\n\nok ,  now i want to talk about an animal that has a fascinating set of defense mechanisms and that's the octopus ,  one of the unusual creatures that live in the sea well ,  let me back up here a second proteus was a god in greek mythology who could change form he could make himself look like a lion or a stone or a tree ,  anything you wanted ,  and he could go through a whole series of changes very quickly well ,  the octopus is the real world version of proteus just like proteus ,  the octopus can go through all kinds of incredible transformations and it does this in three ways  by changing color ,  by changing its texture ,  and by changing its size and shape for me ,  the most fascinating transformation is when it changes its color it's a normal skin color ,  the one it generally presents ,  is either red or brown or even grey ,  and it 's speckled with dark spots but when it wants to blend in with its environment to hide from its enemies ,  it can take on the color of its immediate surroundings  the ocean floor ,  a rock ,  a piece of coral ,  whatever well ,  we know that the reaction that takes place is not chemical in nature the color changes are executed by two different kinds of cells in the octopus   skin ,  mainly by color cells on the skin's surface call chromatophoreschromatophores consist of tiny sacks filled with color dye there might be a couple hundred of these color sacks per square millimeter of the octopus   skin ,  and depending on the species ,  they can come in as many as five different colors each one of these sacks is controlled by muscles if the muscles are relaxed ,  the sack shrinks ,  and all you see is a little white point but if the muscle's contract ,  then the sack expands ,  and you can see the colors well ,  they can no doubt create a lot with just those five colors ,  but you are right ,  maybe they can't mimic every color around them ,  so that's where the second kind of cell comes in just below the chromatophores is a layer of cells that reflect light from the environment ,  and these cells help the octopus create a precise match with the colors that surround them the colors from the color sacks are supplemented with colors that are reflected from the environment ,  and that 's how they are able to mimic colors with such precision so ,  that's how octopus mimic colors but they don't just mimic the colors in their environment  they can alos mimic the texture of objects in their environment they have these little projections on their skin that allow them to resemble various textures the projections are called  if the octopus wants to have a rough texture ,  it raises the papillae if it wants to have a smooth texture ,  it flattens out the papillae ,  so it can acquire a smooth texture to blend in with the sandy bottom of the sea so the octopus has the ability to mimic both the color and the texture of its environment and it's truly amazing how well it can blend in with its surroundings you can easily swim within a few feet of an octopus and never see it i read that they often hide from predators by squirting out a cloud of ink ,  or yes the octopus can release a cloud of ink if it feels threatened but it doesn't hide behind it ,  as is generally believed um ,  the ink cloud is    it serves to distract a predator while the octopus makes its escape um ,  now there's a third way that octopus can transform themselves to blend in with or mimic their environment ,  and that's by changing their shape and size ,  well ,  at least their apparent size the muscular system of the octopus enables it to be very flexible to assume all sorts of shapes and postures so it can contract into the shape of a little round stone ,  and sit perfectly still on the seafloor or it can nestle up in the middle of a plant and take the shape of one of the leaves even proteus would be impressed ,  i think\n\n\ntoday ,  we will be covering the upper paleolithic period ,  which i am roughly defining as the period from 35 ,     to 8 ,     bc a lot of those cave drawings you have all seen come from this period but we are also be talking about portable works of art ,  things that could be carried around from place to place here is one example this sculpture is called the lady with the hood1  ,  and it was carved from ivory ,  probably a mammoth's tusk its age is a bit of a mystery according to one source ,  it dates from 22 ,     bc but other sources claimed it has been dated closer to 3  ,     bc that's a fair question we are talking about prehistory here so obviously the artists didn't put a signature or a date on anything they did last semester i took an archaeology class and we spent a lot time on ,  studying ways to date things one technique i remember was using the location of an object to date it ,  like how deep it was buried that would be stratigraphy stratigraphy is used for dating portable art when archaeologists are digging at a site ,  they make very careful notes about which stratum strata  ,  which layer of earth they find things in and ,  you know ,  the general rule is that the oldest layers are at the lowest level but this only works if the site hasn't been touched ,  and the layers are intact a problem with this dating method is that an object could have been carried around ,  used for several generations before it was discarded so it might be much older than the layer or even the site where it was found the stratification technique gives us the minimum age of an object ,  which isn't necessarilly its true age yeah ,  we did that had to do with chemical analysis ,  something to do with measuring the amount of radiocarbon that's left in organic stuff because we know how fast radiocarbon decays ,  we can figure out the age of the organic material the key word there is organic well ,  you said the lady with the hood was carved out of ivory that 's organic absolutely well ,  when they did those cave drawings fortunately ,  they did ,  at least some of the time so it turns out that radiocarbon dating works for a lot of prehistoric art but again there's a problem this technique destroys what it analyzes ,  so you have to chip off bits of the object for testing obviously we are reluctant to do that in some cases and apart from that ,  there's another problems the date tells you the age of the material ,  say ,  a bone or a tree ,  the object is made from ,  but not the date when the artist actually created it so ,  with radiocarbon dating ,  we get the maximum possible age for the object ,  but it could be younger ok ,  let 's say our scientific analysis has produced an age range you know ,  try to find things common to one time period we do that all the time and when we see similarities in pieces of art ,  we assume some connection in time or place i am sorry i don't get your point well ,  we have all kinds of pre conceived ideas about how artistic styles develop for example ,  a lot of people think the presence of details demonstrates that the work was done by a more sophisticated artist while a lack of detail suggests a primitive style but trends in art in the last century or so certainly challenge that idea don't get me wrong though ,  analyzing the styles of prehistoric art can help dating them but we need to be careful with the idea that artistic development occurs in a straight line ,  from simple to complex representations what you are saying is ,  i mean ,  i get the feeling that this is like a legal process ,  like building a legal case ,  the more pieces of evidence we have ,  the closer we get to the truth great analogy and now you can see why we don't have an exact date for our sculpture ,  the lady with the hood", "source": "toefl_tpo", "evaluation": "exam"}
{"instructions": ["what does the professor imply happened as a result of the romantic movement's spreading to norway\nA. children's literature became less popular\nB. attempts were made to modernize the plots of traditional folktales\nC. folktales began to be regarded as an important aspect of norwegian culture\nD. folktales in norway became more similar to folktales from other parts of europe", "why does the professor mention a folktale called east of the sun and west of the moon\nA. to point out conventions found in most folktales\nB. to point out differences between animal stories and comical stories\nC. to give an example of a transformation story\nD. to give an example of a story published in the first collection of norwegian folktales", "what does the professor find appealing about folk legends\nA. they are very imaginative\nB. they are somewhat realistic\nC. they stress what is important in a culture\nD. they show similarities between otherwise diverse societies", "what is the first lecture mainly about\nA. the role played by folktales in contemporary norwegian society\nB. a description of the major types of norwegian folktales\nC. a comparison of norwegian folktales and norwegian folk legends\nD. an illustration of the differences between oral literature and written literature", "how is the story of the bear and the fox characteristic of norwegian animal stories\nA. it explains the origin of a physical characteristic of an animal\nB. it uses animal behavior to explain human characteristics\nC. it shows how animals were domesticated by people\nD. it contains episodes of animals changing into people", "what is the professor's attitude toward industrialization\nA. he thinks that its effect on earth's climate will decrease overtime\nB. he is worried that it may speed the arrival of the next ice age\nC. he thinks that it may reduce the effect of agriculture on earth's climate\nD. he is unsure about its long term effects on earth's climate", "what does the professor imply about earth's climate over the last several million years\nA. ice ages have alternated with warmer periods\nB. recent ice ages have not been as cold as earlier ice ages\nC. interglacial periods have become cooler and cooler overtime\nD. previous interglacial periods were shorter than the current interglacial period", "according to the professor , what factor is extending the duration of the current interglacial period\nA. a shift in the locations of wetlands and forests\nB. the relatively mild temperatures of the most recent ice age\nC. the increased absorption of certain atmospheric gases by farm crops\nD. an increase in the quantity of certain gases in earth's atmosphere", "according to the professor , what activities associated with the beginnings of agriculture may have slowed or prevented the onset of a predicted ice age\nA. the clearing of trees\nB. the burning of fossil fuels\nC. the domestication of certain animals\nD. the cultivation of certain grains", "what is the second lecture mainly about\nA. the effect of ice ages on the development of agriculture\nB. a theory about a change in earth's climate cycle\nC. strategies to prevent earth from entering another ice age\nD. some effects of industrialization on earth's atmosphere", "according to the professor , what helps speakers keep conversations from proceeding too slowly\nA. the ability to make inferences according to the gricean maxims\nB. the ability to effectively distinguish truth from falsehood\nC. the willingness to acknowledge that a gricean maxim has been violated\nD. the willingness to ignore the gricean maxims on occasion", "why does the professor describe a letter of recommendation\nA. to point out differences between written statements and spoken statements\nB. to illustrate how people may be deceived in a business environment\nC. to show how violating a maxim may contribute to a statement's meaning\nD. to prove that lying is sometimes considered acceptable", "what is the main topic of the third lecture\nA. the reasons people are not always truthful in conversations\nB. the need for greater regulation of language used in advertising\nC. the need for maximum precision and detail in everyday conversation\nD. the role of certain rules in determining what a speaker means", "what does the professor imply about advertisers\nA. they are less likely than politicians to violate a gricean maxim\nB. they realize that consumers know whether an advertisement violates a maxim\nC. they often make use of the gricean maxims to express humor\nD. they realize that consumers make false inferences from advertisements", "why might an early snowfall be a particularly dangerous time for the snowshoe hare\nA. its feet would not yet have grown to resemble snowshoes\nB. its babies would not yet be able to keep themselves warm\nC. its chances of being seen by a predator are much higher\nD. it might not be able to locate where it stored its food supply", "according to the professor , what causes the snowshoe hare's fur to begin turning white\nA. a decrease in the hours that the sun is up each day\nB. a sudden drop in temperature\nC. the increasing amount of snow on the ground\nD. the changing nature of the food supply", "what is the last lecture mainly about\nA. typical features of the snowshoe hare that do not result from adaptation\nB. various strategies used by snowshoe hares to find food during the winter\nC. characteristics that snowshoe hares have developed in response to their environment\nD. interactions between snowshoe hares and human populations in the state of maine", "the professor implies that the snowshoe hare has an advantage over other animals because of its unusual feet , what is that advantage\nA. it can reach food in higher locations better than its competitors\nB. it can stay warm in cold weather longer than its competitors\nC. it can outrun its predators in deep snow\nD. it can dig under the snow to hide from its predators", "the professor explains that the snowshoe hare's food supply is available year round , what does the availability of food allow the snowshoe hare to do\nA. store body fat for the cold months\nB. remain lightweight through the winter\nC. give birth during the winter\nD. grow fur quickly during the first year after birth"], "outputs": ["C", "C", "B", "B", "A", "D", "D", "D", "D", "B", "A", "C", "D", "D", "C", "A", "C", "C", "B"], "input": "all right ,  so now we've talked about folk legends and seen that their    one of their key features is there's usually some real history behind them they are often about real people ,  so you can identify with the characters ,  and that's what engages us in them the particular stories might not be true and some of the characters or events might be made up but there's still a sense that the story could have been true since it is about a real person that's distinct contrast from the other main branch of popular storytelling ,  which is folk tales folk tales are imaginative stories that    um    like folk legends ,  they have been passed down orally ,  from storyteller to storyteller for    since ancient times but with folk tales you don't ever really get the sense that the story might have been true they are purely imaginative and so quite revealing ,  i think anyway ,  about the culture and the connection between folk tales and culture ,  which we'll talk about but first let's go over the various types of folk tale and focus specifically on norwegian folk tales since they illustrate the variety pretty well there are in general three main types of norwegian folk tales one is animal stories ,  where animals are the main characters they can be wild animals or domestic ,  and a lot of times they can talk and behave like humans ,  but at the same time ,  they retain their animal characteristics too they tend to involve animals like bears ,  wolves and foxes the point of these stories ,  their ,  their internal objectives ,  so the speak ,  is usually to explain some feature of the animal ,  how it arose so there's one about a fox who fools a bear into going ice fishing with his tail when the bear puts his tail into the water through a hole in the ice ,  to try and catch a fish ,  the ice freezes around it ,  and he ends up pulling his tail off so that's why bears to this day have such short tails the second category of norwegian folk tale is the supernatural eh    stories about giants and dragons and trolls ,  and humans with supernatural powers or gifts ,  like invisibility cloaks or where people are turned into animals and back again into a person ,  those are called transformation stories there's a well known norwegian supernatural folk tale ,  a transformation story called east of the sun and west of the moon ,  which we'll read it involves a prince who is a white bear by night and a human by day and he lives in the castle that's east of the sun and west of the moon ,  which the heroine in the story has to try to find besides being a good example of a transformation story ,  this one also has a lot of the common things that tend to show up in folk tales you will find the standard opening ,   once upon a time       and it has stock characters like a prince ,  and a poor but beautiful peasant girl ,  she is the heroine i mentioned and    um    it has a very conventional form so no more than two characters are involved in any one scene and it has a happy ending and it's    the story is presented as though    well ,  even though a lot of the actions that occurred are pretty fantastic ,  so you'd never think of it as realistic the characters still act like    they resemble real people they are not real or even based on historical figures but you might have a supernatural story involving a king ,  and he'd act like you'd expect a norwegian king to act ok the third main kind of folk tale is the comical story we'll say more later about these ,  but for now ,  just be aware of the category and that they can contain supernatural aspects ,  but they are usually more playful and amusing overall than supernatural stories now ,  as i said ,  traditionally ,  folk tales were just passed down orally each generation of storytellers had their own style of telling a story but    um    in norway ,  before the 19th century ,  folk tales were just for kids they weren't seen as worthy of analysis or academic attention but this changed when the romantic movement spread throughout europe in the mid 19th century romantics looked at folk tales as sort of a reflection of the soul of the people so there was something distinctly norwegian in folk tales from norway and there was renewed pride in the literature and art forms of individual countries as a result ,  the first collection of norwegian folk tales is published in 1852 and there have been many new editions published since then for the people of norway ,  these stories are now an important part of what it means to be norwegian\n\n\ni'd like to take you back about 11 thousand years ago when earth entered the latest interglacial period interglacial periods are ,  typically periods of time between ice ages ,  when the climate warms ,  and the glacial ice retreats for a time ,  before things cool off again and another ice age begins and for over the past several million years ,  earth's sort of default climate has actually been ice age ,  but we have experienced periodic regular thaws ,  and the last one ,  the one we are in now ,  started about 11 thousand years ago now ,  the typical pattern for an interglacial period ,  and we have studied several ,  is that the concentration of carbon dioxide and methane gas actually reaches it   its peak ,  that is ,  there is the most carbon dioxide and methane gas ,  uh ,  greenhouse gases in the atmosphere just after the beginning of the interglacial period and then ,  for reasons which are not entirely clear  ,  the concentration of greenhouse gases gradually goes down now ,  the climate continues to warm for a while because there is a lag effect but uh ,  gradually as the concentration of greenhouse gases goes down ,  earth starts to cool again ,  and eventually you slip back into an ice age um ,  however  ,  for the latest interglacial period ,  the one we are in now ,  this pattern did not hold ,  that is ,  the concentration of carbon dioxide and methane dipped1 a little bit after ,  uh ,  uh ,  after peaking at the beginning ,  near the beginning of the interglacial period ,  but then it began to rise again well ,  one of the big differences is human activity people began to raise crops and animals for food instead of hunting for them this is the agricultural revolution and it began to happen in the earliest stages about 11 thousand years ago now ,  scientists have tended to regard    the    uh    agricultural revolution as a beneficiary of the    uh    fortuitous shift in climate however  ,  some new theories of climate ,  new theorists of climate have proposed that perhaps humanity was having an effect on the climate as far back as the beginnings of the agricultural revolution when you grow crops and uh ,  pasture your animals  ,  one of the things you do is you cut down the forests if you cut down the forests ,  when you burn the trees for fuel and don't replace them with other trees ,  or when you just leave them to rot and don't allow other trees to grow ,  you end up with a lot more carbon in the form of carbon dioxide getting into the atmosphere um    another gas associated with the spread of agriculture is methane methane forms in large concentration above wetlands ,  and as it turns out ,  the cultivation of certain grains creates vast areas of artificial wetlands ,  and probably drastically increases the amount of methane getting into the atmosphere ,  over and above what would be there so ,  um   agriculture ,  the    the spread of agriculture ,  you know we are talking over thousands of years ,  um   but this could very well had a profound effect on the composition of earth's atmosphere it's kind of ironic to think that absent that effect ,  it maybe that we would be heading into an ice age again in fact ,  back in the 197's ,  a lot of theorists were predicting that ,  you know ,  the climate would start to cool and we'd slowly enter into the new ice age and then they were puzzled as to why it didn't seem to be happening well ,  um   it is a little tricky i mean ,  you could say ,  well ,  here is an example of    um    human activity ,  the agricultural revolution which actually was beneficial ,  we altered the climate for the better  ,  perhaps ,  by preventing an ice age but then industrialization ,  of course ,  has drastically increased the amount of carbon dioxide that humans are putting into the atmosphere ,  the burning of fossil fuels tends to put a lot of co2 into the atmosphere um   so we are entering into uncharted territory now ,  in terms of the amount of carbon dioxide ,  the concentrations of carbon dioxide that are now being put into the atmosphere as a result of industrialization and the use of fossil fuels\n\n\nok ,  the conventions or assumptions that govern conversation ,  these may vary from one culture to another  ,  but basically ,  for people to communicate ,  there is a    they have to follow certain rules because it violates one of the gricean maxims ,  that's a set of rules or maxims a philosopher name h p  grice came up with in 197's one of these gricean maxims is   well ,  i've already given you a hint oh ,  you just can't go around telling lies right ,  or as grice put it ,   do not say what you believe to be false that's one of grice's maxims of quality as he called it so that's pretty obvious but there are others just as important you are not really answering my question there is no connection at all ,  which feels wrong because you generally expect to find one so one important maxim is simply  be relevant and using the so called maxim of relevance we can infer things as well ,  or rather the speaker can imply things and the listener can make inferences for instance ,  suppose you say you would really love to have a cup of coffee right now ,  and i say  there's a shop around the corner   well ,  the shop sells coffee for one thing right ,  and that i believe it is open now because if i won't implying those things ,  my response would not be relevant it'd have no connection with what you said before but according to the maxim ,  my response should be relevant to your statement ,  meaning ,  we should assume some connection between the statement and the response and this maxim of relevance is quite efficient to use even if i don't spell out all the details ,  you can still make some useful logical inferences ,  namely ,  the shop is open and it sells coffee ok ,  then there's the maxims of manner ,  including things like be clear  ,  and avoid ambiguity and another more interesting maxims is one of the so called maxims of quantity ,  quantities of information ,  that is it says ,  to give as much as is required in the situation so suppose you asked me what i did yesterday and i say  i went to the art museum you would likely infer that i saw some works of art suppose ,  though ,  that i did not go inside the museum ,  i just walked up to it then left then i violated the quantity maxim by not giving enough information so you can see how important implications are to our ability to carry on a conversation but there are times when people will violate these maxims on purpose let's say a boss is asked to write a letter of recommendation for a former employee seeking an engineering job the letter he writes is quite brief something like ,  uh ,  mr.  x is polite and always dresses quite neatly oh ,  i see by not mentioning any important qualities related to the job ,  the boss is    like ,  implying that this is best that can be said about mr.  x that he is really not qualified exactly it's a written letter not a conversation ,  but the principle is the same the boss is conveying a negative impression of mr.  x without actually saying negative about him so ,  by violating the maxims ,  we   eh   but    it can be a way to be subtle or polite ,  or to convey humor through sarcasm or irony sometimes though people will violate maxims for another purpose  to deceive right anyone who may see an advantage in implying certain things that are untrue without explicitly saying something untrue they think ,  hey ,  don't blame us if our audience happens to draw inferences that are simply not true so next time you see an advertisement saying some product could be up to 2   more effective ,  think of these maxims of quantity and relevance ,  and ask yourself what inferences you are being led to draw these claims give us a lot less information than they seem to\n\n\nyeah ,  actually i lived in western maine until i was about sixteen great well ,  it's cold and there's lots of snow ,  you wouldn't believe how much snow we actually i would i did field research up there a couple of winters and it really is an incredible environment and to survive in that sort of environment ,  animals have to adapt ,  to evolve in response to their surroundings as you recall ,  an adaptation is any feature ,  um   physical or behavioral feature of a species that helps it survive and reproduce and in adapting to extreme climates ,  like maine in the winter time ,  animals can evolve in pretty interesting ways take ,  for example ,  the snowshoe hare ok ,  the snowshoe hare ,  and of course ,  that's h a r e ,  like a rabbit although i probably should mention that technically a hare is not exactly the same as a rabbit ,  even though it is very similar  the primary difference is that a rabbit's young are born blind and without fur  ,  while a hare's babies are born with a full coat and able to see i'll give you a hint food isn't an issue the hare actually has abundant food in the small twigs it finds well ,  i don't know i mean ,  i know we used to try to look for these rabbits ,  eh   hares ,  when we went hiking in the winter  ,  but it was often hard to find them in the snow yes that's exactly right the major concern of the snowshoe hare in the winter is predators and now that includes humans so one of its adaptations is basically camouflage in other words ,  its coat ,  its fur  ,  turns from brown in the summer to white in the winter  ,  which makes it harder for the hare's predators to see it against the white snow yeah ,  but i could swear i remembered seeing rabbits in the snow a couple of times ,  i means hares ,  that were brown well ,  you may very well have timing is really important ,  but the snowshoe hare doesn't always get it exactly right its chances for survival are best if it turns white about the time of the first snowfall and it's the amount of daylight that triggers the changing of the hare's coat as the days get shorter  ,  that is ,  as the sun is up for a shorter and shorter time each day ,  the snowshoe hare starts growing white fur and shedding its brown fur  the hare does a pretty good job with its timing ,  but sometimes when there's a really early or late snow ,  it stands out plus ,  it takes about a month for the snowshoe hare's coat to completely change color  so if there's a particularly early snowfall ,  it's very likely that the hare's fur would not yet be totally white and that would make this a particularly dangerous time for the hare ok well ,  this animal's name does have to do with an adaptation of its feet uh   though ,  not like it has warm furry boots or something to keep its feet from getting cold you've probably never needed to wear snowshoes but ,  well ,  snowshoes are not like thick furry shoes designed to keep the feet warm ,  they are actually quite thin ,  but very wide what they do is spread out the weight of the foot coming down on the snow see ,  the problem with walking on snow is that you sink in with every step but with snowshoes ,  you don't sink in ,  you walk on top of the snow it makes walking through the maine countryside in the winter much easier  anyway ,  the snowshoe hare has an adaptation that plays on the same idea it has hind feet that act like snowshoes i mean ,  it's paws are wide and they allow the hare to hop and run just at the surface of deep snow and this is a huge advantage for the snowshoe hare since by contrast ,  the feet of its predators usually sink right down into the snow now ,  another advantage related to this is that unlike many animals in winter ,  snowshoe hares can stay lean and light weight they accumulate essentially no body fat well ,  yes but not because there isn't enough food around it's because ,  like i said ,  food is almost always within reach ,  and they don't have to store up a lot of food energy for the harsh winters", "source": "toefl_tpo", "evaluation": "exam"}
{"instructions": ["how did the software product developed during project split differ from the product developed during project unity\nA. the project split product was released to the market in a shorter amount of time\nB. the project split product could be used in more types of computer systems\nC. the project split product cost less money to develop\nD. the project split product was of inferior quality", "what points does the professor make about software developers\nA. the work they do is mainly creative\nB. they enjoy the challenge of identifying problems to fix\nC. their work is easier than the work of software testers\nD. they are not always able to detect software problems", "according to the professor , where does the term bug used for computer problems come from\nA. it originated because of similar between computer virus and real virus\nB. it is based on an incident in which an insect interfered with the function of any early computer\nC. it was first used by early computer scientists who noticed small problems in programming code\nD. it was first used by developers who did not like testers identifying problems in their work", "what is the main purpose of the first lecture\nA. to describe some recent improvements in computer technology\nB. to explain why so many software products have flaws when they are put on the market\nC. to show that creating good software depends on people with distinct roles working well together\nD. to discuss how the software development process has evolved since the time of early computers", "what factor made work on project unity efficient\nA. no unplanned changes were made during defect meetings\nB. the teams focused on fixing only major problems\nC. the software developers were not defensive about problems detected by the testers\nD. some of the software testers had previous experience as software developers", "what is the professor's attitude toward the results from medical research on snake venom proteins\nA. she is enthusiastic about the drugs that have been tested to date\nB. she is concerned about the side effects of drugs created from snake venom proteins\nC. she doubts that the dna database will be useful in developing new drugs\nD. she thinks it is too early to tell how successful the research will be", "why does the professor mention the brown tree snake\nA. to support a hypothesis about the evolution of constrictor snakes\nB. to support a hypothesis that venomous snakes evolved from constrictor snakes\nC. to give an example of a snake species that was never venomous\nD. to give an example of a type of snake that can change its color", "what is the second lecture mainly about\nA. methods of analyzing toxic proteins in snake venom\nB. insights about snake evolution provided by venom analysis\nC. how snake venom differs from lizard venom\nD. why colubrids are considered nonvenomous snakes", "according to the professor , what is a major weakness of the classification system that is based on animals'sphysical characteristics\nA. it can show the relationships only among a small number of animal species\nB. it requires technology that is not widely available\nC. it cannot account for characteristics that first appeared in the recent geologic past\nD. it cannot determine whether similar characteristics developed in similar ways", "according to the professor , in what way do colubrid snakes differ from other venomous snakes\nA. colubrids did not evolve from lizards\nB. colubrids do not use venom to catch their prey\nC. the front teeth of colubrids are much larger than those of other venomous snakes\nD. colubrids produce a much stronger type of venom than other venomous snakes do", "what point does the professor make about photography and portraiture in the twentieth century\nA. painters began to produce more lifelike portraits in imitation of photography\nB. photography largely replaced the tradition of portrait painting\nC. photographers followed the style of portrait painters in creating their work\nD. both photography and portrait painting were considered inferior art", "according to the professor , what two aspects of neel's work are characteristic of expressionism\nA. the depiction of unusual object\nB. the way the subjects'sfaces are portrayed\nC. the shape of the subjects'sbodies\nD. the use of color in the paintings", "what aspect of alice neel's work does the class mainly discuss\nA. the ways that her artistic style developed over time\nB. the influence of photography on her portraits\nC. the style she used to portray her subjects\nD. criticism of her approach to realism and expressionism", "why does the professor discuss the variety of people in neel's portraits\nA. to explain why it took neel a long time to find her characteristic style\nB. to explain why neel experimented with genres other than portraiture\nC. to identify elements of realism and expressionism in neel's paintings\nD. to emphasize a distinctive feature of neel's body of work", "why does the professor point out that greek astronomers tried to explain new astronomical discoveries within the geocentric concept\nA. to explain why early astronomers found new discoveries exciting\nB. to explain why some claims made by ancient greek astronomers conflicted with claims made by earlier astronomers\nC. to illustrate that the geocentric concept was open to many interpretations\nD. to illustrate that the geocentric concept itself was not considered questionable", "what is the purpose of the last lecture\nA. to explain how the heliocentric theory of the universe developed\nB. to give an example of the persistence of traditional theories\nC. to show that scientific knowledge is rarely influenced by philosophy\nD. to compare methods in observational and theoretical astronomy", "in the professor's view , what might have caused aristarchus to propose the heliocentric theory\nA. the discovery that earth was much smaller than the sun\nB. the lack of proof supporting the theory of epicycles\nC. the influence of well known philosophers\nD. the apparent stability of earth", "why does the professor discuss the epicycle theory\nA. to explain why early astronomers started measuring the velocity of the planets\nB. to explain why the astronomer aristarchus rejected the geocentric model\nC. to show how early astronomers explained the apparent backward motion of some planets\nD. to show that early astronomers believed that all planets moved in their own orbits around the sun", "what were two arguments ancient greeks used to reject the heliocentric model\nA. more stars would be visible in a heliocentric universe\nB. a moving earth would create a strong wind\nC. aristarchus's calculations were inaccurate\nD. objects fall toward the center of the universe"], "outputs": ["D", "D", "B", "C", "C", "D", "A", "B", "D", "B", "B", "D", "C", "D", "D", "B", "A", "C", "D"], "input": "we've been talking about the software development cycle ,  and today i'd like to move on to the next stage of that cycle testing ,  and why finding bugs during testing is actually a great thing eh  eh   the quality of the software product often relies heavily on how well it's been tested um   just a quick thing yeah ,  in code or in a computer itself there is a bit of a story behind that term um   back in the 194's ,  when the computer industry was just starting ,  a group of computer scientists was working late one night ,  and there was a problem in one of the computers  circuits1 when they examined it ,  they found a five centimeter long moth caught in there once they debugged the computer ,  it worked just fine and ever since then ,  all kinds of computer problems have been known as bugs anyway ,  you want to find bugs while the software is still in the development and testing phases finding them when the software product has already been put on the market can be quite embarrassing generally speaking ,  every software development project has a group of testers and a group of developers they are generally completely different group of people my personal opinion is that they have to be different groups of people because developers often have a bias for their own work ,  and it blinds them to certain problems that might be obvious to somebody else so it is always good to have a different set of eyes to go in there and make sure that everything is tested properly ok ,  now ,  here's the key developers and testers have different mentalities the mentality of the software developer is construtive ,  creative ,  they are spending long hours working together to create and build something new a software tester ,  on the other hand ,  their entire goal is to look at this product and find problems with it ,  to improve it now ,  this difference between the testers and the developers can lead to an environment where there is a bit of friction and that friction sometimes makes it difficult for the two teams to work together there are two projects that i worked on a couple of years ago one ,  which i'll call project split ,  well ,  the testing and development teams did not work well together and the other ,  i'll call project unity ,  during which both teams worked very well together now ,  during project split ,  we had defect meetings where the developers and the testers met together ,  eh   eh   to discuss various problems and how they should be fixed and you could sense the conflict just by walking into the room literally ,  the testers and the developers sat on opposite sides on the table um   and    and the developers were very defensive about the feedback well ,  if bugs are being pointed out they wouldn't be too happy since its their work exactly now ,   cause the two teams weren't working well together ,  the fixes were coming very very slowly and you know ,  a lot of times when you fix bugs you introduce new bugs ,  or you discover bugs and other areas that only come to light because something has been changed ,  so fixing all those new additional bugs was also being delayed um   the test process went on much longer than expected and we ended up having to put the product on the market with known bugs in it ,  which was obviously not ideal um   this was different because two teams worked closely together during the defect meetings ,  instead of put up walls um   we didn't even talked about ,  you know ,  who should fix this ,  who is at fault2 we all acknowledge what needed to be fixed let's do this one first  cause this would expose another whole bunch of defects that we haven't even seen yet so we were being proactive3 and effective and because we were so much more effective with our time ,  we were actually able to do more than just fix the bugs ,  we even put in some improvements that we hadn't planned\n\n\nprobably back in some previous biology course you learned that snakes evolved from lizards ,  and that the first snakes weren't venomous and then along came more advanced snakes ,  the venomous snakes ok ,  venomous snakes are the ones that secrete poisonous substances or venom ,  like the snakes of the viper family or cobras then there is non venomous snakes like constrictors and pythons another family of snakes ,  the colubrids ,  don't really fit neatly into either category though colubrids ,  and you probably learned this too ,  although they are often classified as venomous snakes ,  they are actually generally non venomous they are classified as venomous snakes because they resemble them ,  their advanced features more than the other non venomous snakes well ,  everything except the part about snakes evolving from lizards see ,  the basic theory about snake evolution has been challenged by a recent study that revealed a whole new understanding of evolutionary relationship for reptiles ,  you know ,  which reptiles descended from which ancestors the researchers study the proteins in the venom genes of various species of colubrids emm   snake venom is a mixture of proteins ,  some toxic ,  poisonous ,  and some not by analyzing the dna ,  the genetic material of the proteins ,  the researchers could focus on the toxic genes and use them to trace the evolution of snake venom ,  and from this ,  the evolution of snakes traditionally ,  to understanding evolutionary relationships ,  we looked at various easily observed physical characteristics of animals ,  their skeleton ,  the size of their brain ,  and   and then classify them based on similarities and differences the problem with this method is that characteristics that appear similar may actually have developed in quite different ways for example ,  some venoms are chemical based ,  and others are bacteria based ,  so they clearly had to have developed along different routes and may not be as closely related as we thought now ,  and not everyone will agree about this the classification based on dna seems to be much more reliable ok ,  back to the research the researchers found that venom evolved before snakes even existed ,  about a hundred million years before now ,  a couple of venomous lizards were included in this study and the researchers found some of the same dna in their venom as in the snakes  venom this suggested that the common ancestor of all snakes was actually venomous lizard ,  which means that actually ,  according to this research ,  anyway ,  in terms of the snakes  ancestry ,  there is no such thing as a non venomous snake ,  not even colubrids what separates colubrids from other snakes we have been classifying is venomous ,  is not the lack of venom ,  but the lack of an effective way to deliver the venom into its prey in most venomous snakes ,  like vipers and cobras ,  the venom is used to catch and inmoblize the prey  but in colubrids ,  venom drips onto the prey only after the prey is in the snake's mouth so for colubrids ,  the venom must serve some other purpose ,  maybe linked to digesting prey as the different families of venomous snakes evolved ,  the teeth moved forward ,  becoming larger ,  and the venom becoming stronger ,  so the evolution of the obvious venomous snakes ,  like cobras and vipers ,  is about the evolution of an efficient delivery system ,  not so much the evolution of the venom itself well ,  that's not clear at this point constrictors have evolved to kill their prey by crushing ,  but perhaps they once were venomous ,  and then at some point their venom producing apparatus4 wasn't needed anymore ,  so it gradually disappeared there's one species of snake ,  the brown tree snake ,  that uses both constriction and venom ,  depending on its prey so ,  well ,  it is possible so ,  we have these new concepts of snakes  evolution and a new dna database ,  all these information on the genetic makeup of snake venom and what we have learned from this has led researchers to believe that venom proteins may have some exciting applications in the field of medical research you see ,  venom alters biological functions in the same way certain drugs do ,  and the big benefit of drugs made from snakes venom would be that they target only certain cells ,  so maybe that'll create fewer side effects now ,  it sounds far fetched5 ,  venom is the basis for human drugs so far ,  only one protein has been targeted for study as a potential drug ,  but who knows ,  maybe someday\n\n\nall right ,  so today we are moving on to alice neel ,  n e e l um   alice neel painted portraits ,  she was born in pennsylvania ,  and she lived from 19   to 1984 and i guess you might say ,  she experienced difficulties as an artist she was in her 7's ,  before she had her first major solo exhibition um ,  and this is due at least in part to eh   or   because of photography after photography became regarded as an art form ,  portrait painting became less prestigious6 ,  less respected as an art form and ,  well ,  art photography kind of took its place ,  so you can imagine that a portrait artist ,  would have had a hard time finding acceptance eh ,  but the real reason i want to look at neel ,  is that i really find her style    eh ,  she had interesting ways of portraying people she combined some elements of realism it's like painting something exactly how it is ,  so an artist would try to make it as accurate ,  um   and objective as possible painting stuff just how it appears on the surface ok ,  good so neel combined realism with ,  well ,  actually ,  with expressionism we ,  we just covered this yep the artist is depicting subjective emotions ,  showing the inner reality as interpreted by the artist rather than the outward form so the image itself might be distorted or exaggerated in some way the expression overrides7 objective representation i don't get it all right ,  good question it is actually a good lead in8 to some of the techniques that neel used ,  that she employed to bridge that contradiction in a minute ,  i'll show you some of her portraits ,  and i'll want you to notice a few things about them first ,  neel's use of bold color you'll see she uses color to convey emtion and feeling ,  like the subjects  clothing for instance ,  it appears brighter than it really is and the subjects ,  the people being portrayed ,  neel paid special attention to faces the way she paints the eyes and how the faces are portrayed ,  these are quite realistic ,  like the realists  work but another thing neel did was use elongated ,  sort of stretchy figures so really your are saying that neel's techniques were similar to what other artists were doing ok ,  well ,  i think it has to do partly with the way she combined these techniques so ,  for example ,  those realistic faces and eyes ,  but bright ,  distorted figures it is a mix you'll see that her portraits do reflect reality ,  the people that were actually sitting there realism was important in the sense that she wanted to show people as they really were ,  much like a photographer would but neel wasn't satisfied with photo like realism ,  she went beyond that and this is where expressionism comes in she believed in capturing the whole person ,  not just what was on the surface ,  that's where the expressionists  distortion is important ,  in an attempt to reveal the subjects  character or personality but neel's paintings are distinctive for her time in part because they are portraits remember i said that photography and art photography had largely taken the place of portraiture ,  to the extent that some critics had declared the genre of portraiture to be dead but neel felt that painting should reflect reality ,  a real realist's stance9 you could say and to her ,  individuals ,  people best reflect the reality of their time ,  of the age that they lived in ,  so she painted portraits and if you look at her work ,  we are talking in the vicinity of1  three thousand paintings if your looked at them ,  it is like this gallery of the whole century ,  an enomous range of subjects  families ,  women ,  children ,  artists ,  people in poverty  these paintings really span class ,  age and gender it is like she transformed the genre ,  it is not just formal depictions of presidents and ancestors any more but keep in mind that she was doing this when abstract art dominated the art scene representations of people weren't fashionable in the art world and it wasn't until fairly late in the century that critics recognized the power of what she did\n\n\nok ,  we have been talking about how throughout history ,  it was often difficult for people to give up ideas which have long been taken for granted as scientific truth ,  even if those ideas were false in astronomy ,  for example ,  the distinction between the solar system and the universe wasn't clear until modern times the ancient greeks believed that what we called the solar system was in fact the entire universe ,  and that the universe was geocentric geocentric means earth centered ,  so the geocentric view holds that the sun ,  the planets ,  and the stars ,  all revolve around the earth ,  which is stationary of course ,  we now know that the planets ,  including earth ,  revolve around the sun ,  and that the solar system is only a tiny part of the universe well ,  it made sense to them observations of the sky make it appear as if the sun ,  the moon ,  and the stars all revolve around the earth everyday ,  while the earth itself stayed in one place and this view is also supported by their philosophical and religious beliefs about the origin and structure of the universe it was presented in the works of well known greek philosophers as early as the fourth century b c e ,  and the geocentric theory continue to prevail in western thought for almost 2 ,     years ,  until the 17th century now ,  what's especially interesting is that when astronomical observations were made that seemed to be inconsistent with the geocentric view ,  the ancient greeks did not really consider alternative theories it was so intuitive ,  so sensible that the earth was the center of the universe that astronomers found ways to explain those seemingly inconsistent phenomena within the geocentric view for example ,  greek astronomers made excellent ,  very accurate observations of the movements of the planets ,  but the observations revealed a bit of a problem the geocentric theory said ,  that the planets would move around the earth in one direction however ,  astronomers noticed that at times ,  several planets seem to stop moving in one direction and start moving backward in their orbits around the earth ,  and they came up with a theory that these planets themselves moved in smaller circles called epicycles as they travelled around the earth here's a picture of what they imagined you see how this epicycle theory could account for the seemingly backward motion of the planet of course ,  today we know that this appearance of backward motion is caused by the fact that earth ,  as well as other planets ,  all move in their own orbits around the sun ,  and the relative movements of the planets with respect to each other can get quite complex however ,  there were a few astronomers in greece and other places who didn't agree with the geocentric view ,  for example ,  a greek astronomer who lived in the third century b c e he proposed the theory that our planetary system might be heliocentric ,  his name was aristarchus heliocentric means sun centered ,  that the earth revolves around the sun aristarchus recognized from his calculations that the sun was much larger than the earth and other planets it was probably this discovery that led him to conclude that the universe is heliocentric however ,  his proposition was rejected largely based on other scientific beliefs held at the time ,  which all made sense in a way even if they were incorrect let me mention two objections greeks made to aristarchus's theory so ,  they thought that if the earth itself was moving ,  there would have to be a constant wind blowing ,  sweeping them off their feet ,  and of course there wasn't and second ,  the idea of an earth that moved didn't fit in with the ancient greeks  understanding of gravity they thought that gravity was basically a natural tendency of all things to move towards the center of the universe ,  which was the earth ,  or the center of the earth ,  so that explains why apples and other falling objects were falling straight down if the sun was at the center of the universe ,  things would fall toward the sun and away from the earth ,  which of course they didn't so these were some of the reasons they rejected the heliocentric theory", "source": "toefl_tpo", "evaluation": "exam"}
{"instructions": ["why does the professor discuss gastroliths that have been found with sauropod fossils\nA. to show that much research about extinct animals has relied on flawed methods\nB. to show that even an incorrect guess can lead to useful research\nC. to give an example of how fossils discoveries have cast doubt on beliefs about modern animals\nD. to give an example of a discovery made possible by recent advance in technology", "what does the professor mainly discuss in the first lecture\nA. comparisons between land animals and ocean going animals of the mesozoic era\nB. comparisons between sauropods and modern animals\nC. possible reasons why sauropods became extinct\nD. new theories about the climate of the mesozoic", "what point does the professor make when she compares blues whales to large land animals\nA. like large land animals, blue whales have many offspring\nB. like large land animals, blue whales have proportionally small stomachs\nC. the land environment provides a wider variety of food sources than the ocean\nD. the ocean environment reduces some of the problems faced by large animals", "according to the professor, what recent finding about the mesozoic era challenges an earlier belief\nA. sauropod populations in the mesozoic era were smaller than previously believed\nB. oxygen levels in the mesozoic era were higher than previously believed\nC. ocean levels in the mesozoic era fluctuated more than previously believed\nD. plant life in the mesozoic era was less abundant than previously believed", "what does the professor imply about the usefulness of the theory of primary colors\nA. it is not very useful to artists\nB. it has been very useful to scientists\nC. it is more useful to artists than to psychologist\nD. it is more useful to modern day artists than to artists in the past", "according to the professor, why did runge choose the colors red, yellow, and blues as the three primary colors\nA. he felt they represented natural light at different times of the day\nB. he noticed that they were the favorite colors of romantic painters\nC. he performed several scientific experiments that suggested those colors\nD. he read a book by goethe and agreed with goethe's choices of colors", "according to the professor, what were the results of goethe's experiments with color\nA. the experiments failed to a connection between colors and emotions\nB. the experiments showed useful connections between color and light\nC. the experiments provided valuable information about the relationships between colors\nD. the experiments were not useful until modern psychologists reinterpreted them", "what is the second lecture mainly about\nA. various ways color theory is used in different fields\nB. various ways artists can use primary colors\nC. aspects of color theory that are subject of current research\nD. the development of the first theory of primary colors", "the professor describes an experiment in which wood was exposed to a fungus before being made into a violin what point does the professor make about the fungus\nA. it decomposes only certain parts of the wood\nB. it was found only in the forests of northern italy\nC. it was recently discovered in a vintage cremonese violin\nD. it decomposes only certain species of trees", "why does the professor discuss the growth cycle of tree\nA. to clarify how modern violin makes select wood\nB. to highlight a similarity between vintage and modern violins\nC. to explain why tropical wood cannot be used to make violins\nD. to explain what causes variations in density in a piece of wood", "what does the professor imply about the best modern violin makes\nA. they are unable to recreate the high quality varnish used by cremonese violins makers\nB. their craftsmanship is comparable to that of the cremonese violins makers\nC. they use wood from the same trees that were used to make the cremonese violins\nD. many of them also compose music for the violin", "what does the professor mainly discuss in the third lecture\nA. some special techniques used by the makers of vintage cremonese violins\nB. how the acoustical quality of the violin was improved over time\nC. factors that may be responsible for the beautiful tone of cremonese violins\nD. some criteria that professional violinists use when selecting their instruments", "what factor accounts for the particular density differential of the wood used in the cremonese violins\nA. the trees that produced the wood were harvested in spring\nB. the trees that produced the wood grew in an unusually cool climate\nC. the wood was allowed to partially decay before being made into violins\nD. the wood was coated with a local varnish before it was crafted into violins", "what is the professor's opinion about coral transplantation\nA. it is cost effective\nB. it is long term solution\nC. it is producing encouraging results\nD. it does not solve the underlying problems", "what is the last lecture mainly about\nA. the transplantation of young coral to new reef sites\nB. efforts to improve the chances of survival of coral reefs\nC. the effects of temperature change on coral reefs\nD. confirming the reasons behind the decline of coral reefs", "why does the professor discuss refugia\nA. to explain that the location of coral within a reef affects the coral's ability to survive\nB. to point out why some coral species are more susceptible to bleaching than others\nC. to suggest that bleaching is not as detrimental to coral health as first thought\nD. to illustrate the importance of studying coral that has a low vulnerability to bleaching", "what does the professor imply about the impact of mangrove forests on coral reef ecosystems\nA. mangrove forests provide habitat for wildlife that feed on coral predators\nB. mangrove forests improve the water quality of nearby reefs\nC. mangrove forests can produce sediments that pollute coral habitats\nD. mangrove forests compete with nearby coral reefs for certain nutrients", "according to the professor, what effect do lobsters and sea urchin have on a coral reef\nA. they protect a reef by feeding on destructive organism\nB. they harm a reef by taking away important nutrients\nC. they filter pollutants from water around a reef\nD. they prevent a reef from growing by preying on young corals"], "outputs": ["B", "B", "D", "D", "A", "A", "C", "D", "A", "D", "B", "C", "B", "D", "B", "D", "B", "A"], "input": "your reading for today touched on dinosaur fossils from the mesozoic era ,  which ended about 65 million years ago today we will be discussing the sauropods i think our discussion of sauropods will illustrate what we can learn by comparing the fossil record to modern animals by fossils ,  we mean traces of prehistoric animals such as bones ,  which become mineralized ,  or impressions of bones or organs that are left in stone they were larger than blue whales ,  which are the largest animals alive today they weigh up to one hundred tons ,  twenty times as much as elephants also ,  they were an extremely successful kind of dinosaur there's evidence of sauropods in the fossil record for an unusually long time ,  over one hundred million years biologically speaking ,  sauropods shouldn't have been successful large animals like elephants ,  say ,  they require much more food and energy and have fewer offspring than smaller animals this makes maintaining a population harder the largest animals today don't live on land but in the ocean where food is easier to find ,  a blue whale ,  for instance ,  can eat up to 8 ,     pounds of food a day and they give birth only once every few years we also know that body heat ,  that  well ,  large animals can't easily get rid of excess body heat but for an oceangoing whale ,  that's not a problem for a 1   ton land animal ,  it can be for years ,  we have assumed it was the abundant plant life of the mesozoic that allowed these giants to thrive however ,  we now know that since oxygen levels were much lower in the mesozoic than we assumed ,  there was much less plant life for sauropods to eat than we thought so now ,  well ,  we are looking at other  we are ,  we are trying to understand the biology of sauropods ,  comparing their fossils to the anatomy of modern animals to get a better idea of how they lived what we've found is that sauropods were experts at conserving energy they had enormous stomach capacity ,  the ability to digest food over a long period ,  converting it to energy at a slower pace ,  saving it for later for animals with small stomachs ,  it takes lots of energy to constantly look for food and then digest it with larger stomachs and slower digestion ,  you don't need as much energy well ,  it just seems  more like guessing there's always some guesswork when studying extinct animals but that's exactly what leads to discoveries ,  a hypothesis ,  a type of guess is made we guess the hypothesis by looking for evidence to support it then some questions are answered ,  which may lead to new questions for example ,  let's look at one of these comparisons we know sauropods couldn't chew food their skulls show they had no chewing muscles lots of modern animals ,  like birds and reptiles ,  also can't chew food they need to swallow it whole but modern animals have an interesting aid for digesting food they swallow stones ,  stones that are used to help grind up the food before it's actually digested in the stomach these stones are called gastroliths gastroliths make food easier to digest ,  essentially smashing food up ,  just as we do when we chew over time ,  gastroliths inside the animal are ground down and become smooth and rounded now ,  sauropod fossils are commonly found with smooth stones for years we thought these were gastroliths they look just like gastroliths and were found in the area of the sauropods  stomachs a recent study measured the gastroliths in modern animals ,  in ostriches and the study showed that ostriches need to ingest about one percent of their total body weight in gastroliths but we have been able to determine that the stones found with sauropods totaled much less proportionally ,  less than a tenth of one percent of their body weight so now we are not quite sure what these sauropods  stones were used for it could be they were accidently ingested as the sauropods foraged for food ,  that they served no real purpose other researchers speculate that sauropods ingested these stones as a source of some the minerals they needed ,  such as calcium so the original hypothesis that the stones found with sauropods were gastroliths ,  even though it hasn't been supported ,  has helped us to make new hypotheses ,  which may eventually lead to the answer\n\n\nok as you probably know ,  primary colors are ,  theoretically speaking ,  the basic colors from which all other colors can be made but as you'll find out when you start working on your painting projects ,  the three primary colors   red ,  blue ,  yellow   don't always make the best secondary colors combining red and blue ,  you will probably never get a fantastic violet to get a nice violet ,  you'll have to add white combining yellow and blue ,  you will almost never get a satisfactory green you are better off using a pure green pigment the idea of primary colors ,  and specifically the idea of red ,  yellow and blue being the primary colors ,  didn't exist until about 2   years ago until then ,  the dominant theory about color was one that had been proposed by isaac newton newton gave a scientific and objective explanation of colors he used a prism to break white light down into the various colors of the spectrum and he theorized ,  rightly so ,  that different colors are essentially different wavelengths of light but he made no mention of primary colors that idea came from ,  or was at least published by a man named johann wolfgang von goethe goethe was a well known author he wrote many famous novels ,  plays ,  poems well goethe was part of the romantic movement in western literature and he was a romantic ,  through and through ,  meaning that he explained objects and phenomena in terms of the spiritual ,  emotional impact they had ,  as opposed to explaining them in terms of their scientific nature he rejected an objective understanding of color ,  in favor of a more subjective understanding he believed that when we see color ,  it stimulates our emotions and different colors appeal to or inspire different emotions in different people well ,  color theory is used in psychology too some psychologists do use their field's version of color theory to diagnose and treat patients um  anyway ,  goethe conducted a number of experiments trying to figure out which colors corresponded to which emotions and in terms of that goal ,  he wasn't very successful but his experiments actually did show a lot about the relationships between colors themselves ,  about how colors change when placed next to other colors ,  about how they interact with one another scientists studying optics and chromatics today still marvel at his findings but goethe wasn't really able to establish a clear connection between colors and emotions then in 18 6 ,  he received a letter from a relatively unknown german artist ,  a painter named philipp otto runge in the letter ,  runge outlined his own color theory ,  specifically the connections he made between colors and emotions and his ideas about what colors symbolize ,  about the emotions that different colors inspire were based on the colors red ,  yellow and blue runge's choice of red ,  yellow and blue had nothing to do with what we know from modern day chromatics ,  it had to do with runge's complex system of symbolism ,  his experience of nature ,  particularly with his experience of the quality of light at various times of the day ,  morning ,  noon and night so each color had a specific symbolic value well ,  four years later ,  goethe published a book entitled color lesson in color lesson ,  goethe coincidently cites the same colors as primary colors at this point ,  goethe was already a well known author ,  so he was easily able to popularize this idea of primary colors ,  and specifically the idea of red ,  yellow and blue as the primary colors well ,  he did put runge's letter in the book ,  at the end but he added a disclaimer implying that runge's letter didn't influence his work apparently ,  what goethe was saying was that they just happened to come up with the same theory at the same time\n\n\nso musical instruments evolved in ways that optimize their acoustical properties ,  how the instrument vibrates and sends those vibration through the air to our eardrums now professional musicians are very particular about their instruments ,  they want instruments that help them fully express the intent of the composer ,  which of course translates into a more enjoyable listening experience for the audience members yet most audience members probably aren't even aware of how much the instrument matters i mean ,  ok think about the last concert you attended i recently heard a violinist who totally blew me away so when i applauded ,  i guess i was showing my appreciation for his skill ,  the hours of practicing he must have put in didn't really think about it it looked exactly like mine ,  which is inspiring in a way knowing my violin could also produce beautiful tones ,  that maybe i would sound that good someday i hope you do as i said ,  tone quality differs from instrument to instrument the question is why there's a particularly interesting case with an extraordinary generation of violins made in northern italy ,  in the city of cremona ,  back in the late 16 's   early 17 's these vintage cremonese violins are considered the best in the world but it's not like the makers of those violins were any more skilled than their modern day counterparts they weren't today's top violin makers can pretty much replicate all the physical attributes of a cremonese violin but it's generally thought that the acoustical quality of modern violins doesn't live up to the quality of the vintage ones oh ,  their dimensions ,  shape ,  their fingerboard height ,  uh ,  general craftsmanship for a long time ,  people thought the varnish used to coat and protect the violins was special but research showed it was the same ordinary varnish used on furniture however ,  researchers have discovered that there are something special about the wood the violins were made from and recently they have been able to replicate that too unless the trees that cremonese used are still alive the trees weren't replicated ,  just the wood ,  specifically the wood's density density is determined by how trees grow trees ,  old trees that don't grow in the tropics grow seasonally ,  they grow faster early in the year in the springtime than they do later in the year so early growth wood is relatively porous late growth wood is denser ,  less porous and this variation shows up in the trees growth rings the denser layers are generally darker than the less dense layers we call this variation the density differential variations in wood density affect vibrations ,  and therefore ,  sound when scientists first analyzed the wood of vintage cremonese violins in compared with the modern violin wood ,  they calculated the average density and found no difference later ,  other researchers measured the density differential and found a significant difference modern violins had a greater variation ,  a larger differential but northern italy isn't in the tropics no but climate matters turns out the cremonese violins were made from trees that grew during a little ice age ,  a period when temperatures across europe were significantly lower than normal so the trees grew more evenly throughout the year ,  making the density differential relatively small but you said someone replicated the cremonese wood the density differential was replicated no ,  what happened was a material scientist figured out a way to process wood to make it acoustically similar to the cremonese wood he basically exposed the wood to a species of fungus ,  uh ,  a mushroom in the forest ,  fungi are decomposers they break down dead wood but this particular fungus nibbles away only at certain layers in the wood ,  leaving other layers alone as a result ,  the density differential of the fungi treated wood approach that of the cremonese wood\n\n\nso we have been fairly thorough in our discussion about coral reefs ,  which of course are prominent ,  oceanic features made of hard limestone skeletons produced by tiny coral animals we've gone over where coral reefs are usually formed   along the edges of shallow ocean banks in tropical or subtropical regions ,  and the fact that they are declining at an alarming rate but i don't want to leave you with the impression that all is lost there are several techniques being employed today that could prove useful in assuring the future of the reefs now ,  we've talked in depth about coral bleaching ,  or whitening ,  which as you recall ,  is a symptom of  well that the coral is suffering as you know ,  coral is very sensitive to water temperature even though one or two degree celsius rise in sea surface temperature for a relatively short amount of time can cause bleaching recently ,  researchers have used data collected by monitoring surface water temperatures to improve the ability of a reef to recover from bleaching one future possibility is that improved monitoring can help predict where and when bleaching will occur ,  which might potentially enable us to mitigate its effects and there's another technique that's been experimented with to try to help coral reefs recover from bleaching it's called coral transplantation this involves moving young coral from a healthy reef onto a degraded reef ,  you know ,  in an attempt to regenerate the degraded reef by encouraging young healthy coral to take over there has been some success with this ,  but it's still somewhat controversial some scientists support it because ,  well for one thing ,  it means you don't have to rely on the existing coral to reestablish itself because it might not be able to but in my opinion ,  transplanting coral should only be used as   well as a last resort i mean ,  this method is not only costly but it's   well even if it's successful ,  it still fails to address the ongoing problem ,  the root causes of the degradation ,  which really is paramount to devising an effective solution so i don't really take comfort in the successes they have had with transplantation perhaps some more constructive use of our time could be spent at researching corals that do survive ,  like in areas known as refugia refugia are areas on the reef that are seemingly ,  well resistant to bleaching see ,  when coral reefs experience bleaching ,  it's rarely a case of the whole reef being affected there are almost always pockets of coral on the reefs that remain unaffected and these are often the lower areas of the reef ,  those located in deeper water ,  where temperatures are lower now ,  we have evidence that corals in these locations are able to escape the destructive bleaching that affects portions of the reef in shallower or warmer water so in my mind ,  it's these refugia that are the key components of overall reef resilience these should be the area of concentration for researchers to locate and protect those regions as a way to sustain coral reefs and we can also protect the reefs by protecting the surrounding ecosystems ,  like mangrove forests and seagrass beds both of these grow in coastal waters ,  often in the vicinity of coral reefs by protecting these areas ,  we also protect the coral let's take ,  for example ,  the mangrove forests mangrove root systems have the ability to absorb and well trap sediments and pollutants in water that flows through them before they enter the ocean this of course has beneficial results for the nearby coral reefs and fishery's management is another key strategy overfishing can be seriously disruptive to coral let me give you a couple of examples overfishing certain species of fish and shellfish like snappers ,  barracudas and even lobsters well all of these creatures feed on snails ,  worms and other organisms that eat coral so depleting the number of lobsters ,  for example ,  means that we are adding to the threat of coral decline sea urchins are another example they eat algae and prevent it from overwhelming the coral since the disappearance of sea urchins from the waters up the coast of south florida ,  many coral reefs there have been smothered by the uncontrolled growth of algae", "source": "toefl_tpo", "evaluation": "exam"}
{"instructions": ["what is the main purpose of the  first lecture\nA. to explain how musicians can perform successfully in theaters and concert halls with poor acoustics\nB. to explain how the design of theaters and concert halls has changed over time\nC. to discuss design factors that affect sound in a room\nD. to discuss a method to measure the reverberation time of a room", "why does the professor mention a piano recital\nA. to illustrate that different kinds of performances require rooms with different reverberation times\nB. to demonstrate that the size of the instrument can affect its acoustic properties\nC. to cite a type of performance suitable for rectangular concert hall\nD. to exemplify that the reverberation time of a room is related to its size", "according to the professor, what is likely to happen if a room has a very long reverberation time\nA. performers will have to make an effort to be louder\nB. sound will not be scattered in all directions\nC. older sounds will interfere with the perception of new sounds\nD. only people in the center of the room will be able to hear clearly", "according to the professor, what purpose do wall decorations in older concert halls serve\nA. they make sound in the hall reverberate longer\nB. they distribute the sound more evenly in the hall\nC. they make large halls look smaller and more intimate\nD. they disguise structural changes made to improve sound quality", "what is indicated by the size of the points found in some clovis caches\nA. methods of tool making varied between different clovis groups\nB. the clovis people made a variety of tools for different purposes\nC. the points may not have been functional tools\nD. the larger points made the clovis people's spears more effective", "what is the main purpose of the second lecture\nA. to explain the method used to date clovis caches\nB. to compare two different types of clovis caches\nC. to discuss possible interpretations of clovis caches\nD. to show how caches indicate the route traveled by the clovis people", "what does the professor imply when she mentions a deviate about when the clovis people arrived in the americas\nA. an arrival date of\nB. an arrival date of\nC. only a few archaeologists believe the arrival date is much earlier than\nD. the debate about the arrival date of the clovis people has recently been settled", "what were two characteristics of tools found in clovis caches\nA. they were made later than other clovis tools\nB. they were skillfully made\nC. they were carved with particular symbols\nD. they were made of the best pieces of stone", "according to the alternative hypothesis the professor mentions, why might the clovis people have buried caches\nA. to indicate that they were the owners of the land\nB. to pass cultural knowledge to future generations\nC. to recognize that a place had a special meaning\nD. to give a name to a particular area", "why does the professor mention the writer arthur c clarke\nA. to use a comment made by clarke as a way of answering a student's question\nB. to familiarize students with clarke's ideas on space engjneer ng\nC. to cite a prominent opponent of the idea of space elevators\nD. to point out that clarke wrote about carbon nanotube technology long before it became a reality", "why does the student mention climbing a ladder\nA. to demonstrate his familiarity with certain new types of technology\nB. to make sure he understands the point the professor is making\nC. to raise an objection to the professor's claims about escape velocity\nD. to provide a humorous example for the other students' amusement", "what is the main purpose of the third lecture\nA. to help students understand what is required to launch a satellite\nB. to describe new materials now being used to explore space\nC. to describe a potential technology for space exploration\nD. to show how ideas from science fiction often develop into actual technologies", "according to the professor, what is the significance of having a satellite in orbit about 36 000 kilometers above earth's surface\nA. this is the physical limit of the length that a carbon nanotube cable could reach\nB. a satellite orbiting at this height can remain directly above on location on earth\nC. earth's gravitational field is too weak to hold a satellite in orbit at higher altitudes\nD. the distance around earth's equator is approximately", "what does the professor imply about using carbon nanotubes in the development of space elevators\nA. current technology is good enough to make space elevators even without nanotubes\nB. we do not yet have the technology to bind nanotubes together in a ribbon\nC. nanotube cables would not be rigid enough to support an elevator car\nD. nanotubes are the kinds of materials that will be needed if space elevators are ever to be built", "what does the professor suggest are the three main causes of pedodiversity in the old growth hardwood forests she discusses\nA. the uprooting of trees\nB. the existence of gaps\nC. current forest management practices\nD. diversity of tree species", "what does the professor mainly discuss in the last lecture\nA. cause of soil diversity in old growth forests\nB. the results of a recent research study in a michigan forest\nC. the impact of pedodiversity on forest growth\nD. how forest management affects soil diversity", "according to the professor, in what way is the soil in forested areas generally different from soil in other areas\nA. in forested areas, the soil tends to be warmer and moister\nB. in forested areas, the chemistry of the soil changes more rapidly\nC. in forested areas, there is usually more variability in soil types\nD. in forested areas, there is generally more acid in the soil", "why does the professor give the students an article to read\nA. to help them understand the relationship between forest dynamics and pedodiversity\nB. to help them understand how to approach an assignment\nC. to provide them with more information on pits and mounds\nD. to provide them with more exposure to a controversial aspect of pedodiversity", "why does the professor consider pedodiversity an important field of research\nA. it has challenged fundamental ideas about plant ecology\nB. it has led to significant discoveries in other fields\nC. it has implications for forest management\nD. it is an area of study that is often misunderstood"], "outputs": ["C", "D", "C", "B", "C", "C", "C", "D", "C", "A", "B", "C", "B", "D", "D", "A", "C", "A", "C"], "input": "today i'd like to talk a bit about the relationship between the built world and sound uh ,  the design of buildings like concert halls or theaters yes now ,  people have been concerned about how sound carries in auditoriums and theaters for at least 2 ,     years but it was not until the beginning of the twentieth century that architectural acoustics became a scientific field that was when the physicist wallace sabine started to do extensive studies on reverberation sabine wanted to find out why the audience could not understand speakers at a lecture hall in boston he designed a series of studies on reverberation to figure it out it's the persistence of sound in a room after the source has stopped making sound you see ,  sound made in a room reflects off the walls ,  floors and ceiling that's the reverberant sound the time it takes for the reverberant sound to die down is important for the acoustic quality of a room sabine recognized this and he came up with an equation to measure a room's reverberation time exactly a long reverberation time may cause musical notes to drown one another out on the other hand ,  if the reverberation time is very short   meaning ,  the reverberations are absorbed very quickly ,  the room is called dead performers would feel they have to struggle to fill the room with sound we don't want that in a concert hall or theater ,  we prefer a live room ,  where the sound has fullness so we need to control the reverberation time absolutely the larger the room ,  the longer the reverberation time so we'll have to take into account what the room will be mainly used for ,  since music requires more reverberation than speech a room intended for music needs to be designed differently from a room intended for drama for music ,  we need a very large room ,  a concert hall ,  actually i should say for full orchestras because for a single instrument ,  say something like a piano recital ,  a room with a short reverberation time is better so for a solo piano a smaller room works well i read that concert halls designed for symphony orchestras have too much echo for jazz music that doesn't surprise me most small jazz groups would need rooms with a shorter reverberation time but besides the size of the room ,  another variable affecting reverberation is the shape of the room let's say you design a rectangular box like space with bare walls and ceiling ,  this would allow the sound to act like a ball in a racquetball court ,  you know ,  bouncing around and hitting some parts of the walls and ceiling but missing many others if that happens in a concert hall ,  audience members may hear some sounds ,  but not others the answer is  avoid straight ,  parallel walls but i think i've seen photos of rectangular concert halls right older concert halls from the 18 's are generally rectangular but they all have a lot of decorations on the walls inside ,  lots of ornamental plasterwork like statues ,  which distribute sound very efficiently ,  reflecting it in all different directions and that brings me to another variable we need to consider the acoustic characteristics of the building materials as well as the wall and floor coverings in fact ,  most objects you see in a concert hall or theater serve double duty the plush chairs absorb sound and soften reverberation they are very good at diffusing sound you see ,  everything must be planned down to the last detail in order to predict the acoustic performance of a room that being said ,  there's something that can't be controlled by the architect the audience has an effect on acoustics too the heads of people are good diffusers of sound and architects try to account for this effect in their design ,  but they can't guarantee a full auditorium\n\n\nwe will be looking at the original settlement of the americas next ,  and i'll spend the next few classes talking about the clovis people and the two big questions archaeologists have about them and of course ,  were they the first people in the western hemisphere and we'll get to that now ,  again ,  there's a great debate about when the clovis people first arrived in the americas and i am not like a lot of archaeologists who want to push the number way back ,  so let's use a round number and probably a safe number and say 11 ,     years ago the clovis people were likely settling north america 11 ,     years ago and leave it at that for now now ,  most of what we know about the clovis people comes from one of their tools the clovis point when we talk about a point we are referring to a piece of stone that's worked to a sharp point ,  in this case probably to be attached to a spear the clovis point may be the most analyzed artifact in archaeology and the point used by clovis people differs slightly from later points ,  in the way that the base of the stone is thinned ,  uh ,  it's thinner toward the base ,  the part that's attached to the spear so when one is found ,  it's usually not confused with points made by later groups clovis points have been discovered at both hunting grounds and camp sites ,  which you might expect but another fascinating place we find them is in clovis caches a cache is just something stored or hidden away it's also the term for the place where it's hidden the clovis caches are collections of tools ,  stone points and other tools made of stone or bone ,  often at various stages of manufacturing ,  some were left unfinished the traditional explanation is that these were emergency supplies ,  uh ,  meant to be used at a later time since the clovis people were highly mobile ,  it's plausible that they would set up spots along established travel routes where they keep a variety of items either so that they wouldn't have to carry everything with them or so they could save time once they arrived at a site by not having to make stuff from scratch but there's another theory about the caches based on the quality of some of the points we've found you see ,  the points in some caches differ from other points ,  from points at clovis camp sites for example for one thing ,  these cache points are quite large ,  up to twice as large as regular points ,  so big that you couldn't attach one to a spear say ,  and expect to throw the spear accurately over any distance well ,  it was originally thought that they were unfinished ,  that someone was working away a point ,  then had to stop and put it aside in one of these caches to work on later the problem is  it's unlikely that a point would have started out as large as the points in these caches ,  that would be a lot of stone to chip away a toolmaker starts with a smaller piece and actually ,  far from being unfinished ,  a lot of these points really show excellent craftsmanship and attention to detail and not just with respect to the skill ,  but also with respect to the raw material ,  it seems that cached points are made from the very best pieces of stone maybe be they weren't just tools look at it this way when the clovis people first arrived in the americas ,  they had a lot to learn about their new environment over time ,  they would have begun to recognize some places as special ,  important for some reason maybe there was always water available there or the hunting was especially good so maybe the cache was a way to mark the place as significant\n\n\ntoday let's begin to look at structural engineering in the space age uh ,  new problems new possibilities mean we can think in new ways ,  find radically different approaches exactly i mean ,  just taking the space shuttle up and back one time is hugely expensive to to get the rocket going fast enough good so we are burning up an enormous amount of fuel at every launch just to get the rocket up to what's known as escape velocity now ,  escape velocity is around 11 kilometers a second ,  pretty fast well ,  yeah otherwise gravity will pull you back down to the earth actually ,  that's a common misconception escape velocity is simply the speed of an object that's  uh ,  let's say ,  shot out of a cannon the minimum initial speed so that the object could later escape earth's gravity on its own but that's just if there's no additional force being applied if you keep on supplying force to the object ,  keep on pushing it upward it could pull away from earth's gravity at any speed uh ,  well ,  theoretically i mean ,  i can see some practical problems with the ladder example uh ,  like you might get just a little bit tired out after the first few thousand kilometers or so ,  uh ,  especially with all the oxygen tanks you'll have to be hauling up with you no i was thinking more along the lines of an elevator sure an elevator that's a new idea to most of us ,  but in fact it's been around for over a century if we could power such an elevator with solar energy ,  we could simply rise up into space for a fraction of the cost of a trip by rocket or shuttle but wait ,  elevators don't just rise up it have  sic   to hang on some kind of wire or track or something uh ,  true and for decades that's exactly what's prevented the idea from being feasible or even just taken seriously where do we find the material strong enough yet lightweight enough to act as a cable or track i mean ,  we are talking 36 ,     kilometers here and the strain on the cable would be more than most materials could bear but a new material developed recently has a tensile strength higher than diamond ,  yet it's much more flexible i am talking about carbon nanotubes ok i've read something about carbon nanotubes ah ,  yes but these cylinders cling together at a molecular level you pull out one nanotube or row of nanotubes ,  and its neighbor's come with it ,  and their neighbors ,  and so on so you could actually draw out a 36 ,     kilometer strand or ribbon of nanotubes stronger than steel ,  but maybe a thousandth the thickness of a human hair ok fine well ,  we definitely have to anchor it at both ends so what we need is a really tall tower here on the ground right at the equator and a satellite in geostationary orbit around the earth there's a reason i mentioned that figure of 36 ,     kilometers that's about how high an object would have to be orbiting straight up from the equator to constantly remain directly above the exact same spot on the rotating planet earth so once you are in this geostationary orbit right over the tower ,  just lower your carbon nanotube cable down from the satellite ,  tether it to the tower here on earth well ,  the science fiction writer arthur c clarke talked about building a space elevator back in the 197's and when someone asked him when he thought this idea might become a reality ,  his reply was ,   probably about fifty years after everybody quits laughing http   discovermagazine com 2  9 jul aug  9 ways carbon nanotubes just might rock world\n\n\nso far we have covered biodiversity in the hard wood forest here in the upper peninsula of michigan from a number of angles we've looked at everything from how biodiversity relates to species stability ,  to competition for forests resources and more but now i want to discuss what's called pedodiversity pedodiversity is basically soil diversity when we analyze pedodiversity within an area ,  we are measuring how much variability there is in soil properties and how many different types of soil there are in a particular area so we look at soil chemistry for example ,  how much nitrogen or magnesium there's in the soil in one spot and we compare it with the chemistry of the soil a short distance away until recently ,  there hasn't been a whole lot of attention paid to pedodiversity but that's changing rapidly more and more studies are being done in these fields there's a link between biodiversity and pedodiversity ,  an obvious relationship between soils and flora and fauna ,  which is why pedodiversity really should be considered in forest management a high degree of soil variability in a small area is common ,  particularly within forests if you compare soils from a forest with soils that don't come from a forest ,  the amount of variability will most likely be greater in the forest's soil it generally has more diversity um ok there are three main causes of pedodiversity within old growth forest here in our region of michigan one is tree species different species have different influences on soil formation and soil properties for example ,  pine trees drop pine needles and those needles add a lot of acid to the soil the organic litter of another tree species might add less acid but more of something else a lot of different types of trees in an area might mean more pedodiversity gaps   created when trees fall you see ,  where there are gaps ,  open areas in the forest ,  the soil there changes um  for instance ,  without a tree to absorb radiation from the sun ,  to offer shade ,  the full intensity of that radiation reaches the ground the soil where the tree used to be heats up and without a tree to soak up moisture from the ground ,  the soil remains wetter than in the surrounding forest with a higher temperature and more moist conditions ,  the process of organic matter decomposition speeds up in other words ,  organic matter gets broken down and added into the soil more quickly in these gaps than in the surrounding forest ok and the third cause trees being uprooted when a tree is uprooted ,  it might fall into some other trees on its way down ,  thus falling only partway over or it might crash all the way down to the forest floor either way ,  if its roots are pulled up from out of the ground as the tree topples over ,  then there's usually a big hole ,  a pit left in the ground where the roots used to be and there's still a lot of soil attached to the roots ,  clinging to the roots as that soil is eventually shed from the roots by rain and wind and the movement of squirrels climbing around ,  things like that um   as the soil is shed ,  it drops down and forms a little hill of dirt ,  a mound pits and mounds have significantly different soil properties than other areas in the forest you get a redistribution and mixing of soil as deep roots are ripped up from the ground rock fragments can be pulled up too ,  if they've gotten entangled with the roots over the years so rock fragments from the subsoil can end up concentrated on the surface there are forests management implications i want to point out forests management impacts soil quality and when we better understand pedodiversity ,  we will be better able to predict the impact of forest management on soil but in general ,  for positive impact ,  forest management practices should mimic natural forest processes and the goal should be to promote pedodiversity ,  and through this ,  biodiversity in general i have a handout ,  an article on pedodiversity in a section of forests near here i want you to read it ,  because it makes a point that i've only touched on from what i have been saying about the causes of pedodiversity ,  you might assume that the relationship between forest dynamics ,  what happens to the trees ,  and pedodiversity is a one way street as the article explains ,  forest dynamics affects pedodiversity but pedodiversity also affects forest dynamics it's worth bearing in mind", "source": "toefl_tpo", "evaluation": "exam"}
{"instructions": ["what does the professor explain to one of the students about the term radiation\nA. it is defined incorrectly in the textbooks\nB. it was first used in the nineteenth century\nC. it is rarely used by astronomers\nD. it does not refer only to harmful energy", "what can be inferred about two stars if their spectra have similar spectral line patterns\nA. the stars are approximately the same distance from the earth\nB. the stars probably have some chemical elements in common\nC. the stars have nearly the same brightness\nD. the stars are probably of the same size", "according to the professor , what is the purpose of heating an element in a spectroscopic flame test\nA. to cause an element to emit light\nB. to study an element in combination with other elements\nC. to remove impurities from the element\nD. to measure an element's resistance to heat", "what is the first lecture mainly about\nA. different ways of magnifying the spectrum of a star\nB. how a chemical element was first discovered on the sun\nC. how astronomers identify the chemical elements in a star\nD. why the spectra of different stars are composed of different colors", "what is the professor's opinion about the art at the chauvet cave\nA. it is extremely well done\nB. it probably reflected artists'sreligious beliefs\nC. it is less sophisticated than the art at lascaux and altamira\nD. it is probably not much older than the are at lascaux and altamira", "what are two questions about the chauvet cave artists that the professor raises but cannot answer\nA. how they lighted their work area\nB. how they obtained pigments for their paints\nC. why they chose to paint certain animals and not others\nD. why they placed their art in dark , uninhabited places", "what does the professor mainly discuss in the second lecture\nA. the oldest known cave art\nB. how ancient cave art is dated\nC. the homes of paleolithic humans\nD. how paleolithic humans thought about animals", "when does the professor mention his daughter\nA. to describe her reaction to seeing the paintings\nB. to explain the universal appeal for the chauvet paintings\nC. to demonstrate the size of most paleolithic cave art\nD. to emphasize his point about the age of chauvet paintings", "according to the professor , what is the significance of charcoal marks on the walls of the chauvet cave\nA. they suggest that paleolithic people cooked their food in the cave\nB. they prove that people came to the cave long after the paintings were made\nC. they show how much light the paleolithic artists needed for their work\nD. they were used in recent times to date the paintings", "why does the professor compare the film style of jacques cousteau and jean painleve\nA. to explain how painleve influenced cousteau\nB. to emphasize the uniqueness of painleve's filming style\nC. to emphasize the artistic value of cousteau's documentary films\nD. to demonstrate the superiority of painleve's filmmaking equipment", "how did painleve's film confuse the audience\nA. they show animals out of their natural habitat\nB. they depict animals as having both human and animal characteristics\nC. the narration is scientific and difficult to understand\nD. the audiences of the", "why are painleve's films typical of the films of the 1920s and 1930s\nA. they do not have sound\nB. they are filmed underwater\nC. they are easy to understand\nD. they difficult to categorize", "what is the main purpose of the third lecture\nA. to discuss the style of an early filmmaker\nB. to describe different types of filmmaking in the\nC. to discuss the emergence of the documentary film\nD. to describe painleve's influence on today's science fiction films", "why does the professor mention sea horses\nA. to explain that they were difficult to film in the\nB. to point out that cousteau made documentaries about them\nC. to illustrate pianleve's fascination with unusual animals\nD. to explain why painleve's underwater films were not successful", "what does the professor imply researchers have learned while studying hummingbird migration\nA. hummingbirds have totally disappeared from some countries due to recent habitat destruction\nB. programs to replant flowers native to hummingbird habitats are not succeeding\nC. some groups of hummingbirds have changed their migration patterns\nD. some plant species pollinated by hummingbirds have become extinct", "what does the professor mainly discuss in the last lecture\nA. major changes in the migratory patterns of hummingbirds\nB. the adaptation of hummingbirds to urban environments\nC. concern about the reduction of hummingbird habitat\nD. the impact of ecotourism on hummingbird populations", "what does the professor say people have done to help hummingbirds survive\nA. they have built a series of hummingbird feeding stations\nB. they have supported new laws that punish polluters of wildlife habitats\nC. they have replanted native flowers in once polluted areas\nD. they have learned to identify various hummingbird species", "what way of collecting information about migrating hummingbirds does the professor mention\nA. receiving radio signals from electronic tracking devices\nB. being contacted by people who recapture banded birds\nC. counting the birds that return to the same region every year\nD. comparing old and young birds'smigration routes", "what does the professor imply might cause a decrease in the hummingbird population\nA. an increase in the ecotourism industry\nB. an increase in the use of land to raise crops and cattle\nC. a decrease in banding studies\nD. a decrease in the distance traveled during migration"], "outputs": ["D", "B", "A", "C", "A", "C", "A", "D", "B", "B", "D", "D", "B", "C", "C", "C", "C", "B", "B"], "input": "now astronomy didn't really bloom into the science it is today until the development of spectroscopy spectroscopy is basically the study of spectra and spectral lines of light ,  and specifically for us ,  the light from stars it makes it possible to analyze the light emitted from stars when you analyze this light ,  you can figure out their distance from the earth ,  and identify what they are made of ,  determine their chemical composition before we get into that though ,  it's probably a good thing to back up a bit you all know how when you take a crystal prism and pass a beam of sunlight through it ,  you get a spectrum ,  which looks like a continuous band of rainbow colors the light that we see with our human eyes as a band of rainbow color falls in the range of what's called visible light and visible light spectroscopy is probably the most important kind of spectroscopy and i'm sure all of you know this because you all did the reading for today optical radiation but i thought being exposed to radiation is dangerous yes ,  and no if you are talking about radiation ,  like in the element uranium ,  yeah ,  that's dangerous but radiation as a general term actually refers to anything that spreads away from its source so optical radiation is just visible light energy spreading out ok ,  so we've got a spectrum of a beam of sunlight and it looks like the colors bleed into each other there are no interruptions ,  just a band flowing from violet to green ,  to yellow ,  to  you get the idea maybe you all didn't do the reading well ,  here's what you'd see i want you to notice that this spectrum is interrupted by dark lines called spectral lines if you really magnify the spectrum of the sunlight ,  you could identify more than 1   ,     of them they may look like kind of randomly placed ,  but they actually form many distinct patterns and if you were looking at the spectrum of some other star ,  the colors would be the same but the spectral lines would break it up at different places ,  making different patterns each pattern stands for a distinct chemical element ,  and so different sets or patterns of spectral lines mean that the star has a different chemical composition well ,  a kind of spectroscopic library of elements was compiled using flame tests a known element ,  say a piece of iron for example ,  is heated in a pure gas flame the iron eventually heats to the point that it radiates light this light is passed through a prism ,  which breaks it up into a spectrum and a unique pattern ,  kind of like a chemical fingerprint of spectral lines for that element appears this process was repeated over and over again for many different elements ,  so we can figure out the chemical makeup of another star by comparing the spectral pattern it has to the pattern of the elements in the library oh ,  an interesting story about how one of the elements was discovered through spectroscopy there was a pretty extensive library of spectral line patterns of elements even by the 186's a british astronomer was analyzing a spectrograph of sunlight ,  and he noticed a particular pattern of spectral lines that didn't match anything in the library so he put two and two together ,  and decided there was an element in the sun that hadn't been discovered here on the earth yet it actually turned out to be pretty common and i'm sure all of you know it ok let's try something else something like  helius  or something like that oh ,  it must be  helium  so you are saying that helium was discovered on the sun first yes ,  and this is a good example of how important spectroscopy is in astronomy\n\n\nsome of the world's oldest preserved art is the cave art of europe ,  most of it in spain and france and the earliest cave paintings found to date are those of the chauvet cave in france discovered in 1994 that was the oldest age she knew and you know ,  come to think of it it's pretty hard for me to really understand how long 3  ,     years is too i mean ,  we tend to think that people who lived at that time must have been pretty primitive but i'm gonna show you some slides in a few minutes and i think you will agree with me that this art is anything but primitive they are masterpieces and they look so real ,  so alive that it's very hard to imagine that they are so very old now ,  not everyone agrees on exactly how old a number of the chauvet paintings have been dated by a lab to 3  ,     or more years ago that would make them not just older than any other cave art ,  but about twice as old as the art in the caves at altamira or lascaux ,  which you may have heard of some people find it hard to believe chauvet is so much older than altamira and lascaux ,  and they noted that only one lab did the dating for chauvet ,  without independent confirmation from any other lab but be that as it may ,  whatever the exact date ,  whether it's 15 ,     ,  2  ,     or 3  ,     years ago ,  the chauvet paintings are from the dawn of art so they are a good place to start our discussion of cave painting now ,  one thing you've got to remember is the context of these paintings paleolithic humans   that's the period we are talking about here ,  the paleolithic ,  the early stone age ,  not too long after humans first arrived in europe   the climate was significantly colder then ,  and so rock shelters ,  shallow caves were valued as homes protected from the wind and rain and in some cases at least ,  artists drew on the walls of their homes but many of the truly great cave art sites like chauvet were never inhabited these paintings were made deep inside a dark cave ,  where no natural light can penetrate there's no evidence of people ever living here cave bears ,  yes ,  but not humans you would have had to make a special trip into the cave to make the paintings ,  and a special trip to go see it and each time you'd have to bring along torches to light your way and people did go see the art there's charcoal marks from their torches on the cave walls clearly dating from thousands of years after the paintings were made so we can tell people went there they came but they didn't stay we'll never really know of course ,  though it's interesting to speculate but ,  um ,  getting to the paintings themselves ,  virtually all paleolithic cave art represents animals ,  and chauvet is no exception the artists were highly skilled at using ,  or even enhancing ,  the natural shape of the cave walls to give depth and perspectives to their drawings ,  the sense of motion and vitality in these animals well ,  wait till i show you the slides anyway ,  most paleolithic cave art depicts large herbivores horses are most common overall with deer and bison pretty common too ,  probably animals they hunted but earlier at chauvet ,  there is a significant interest in large dangerous animals ,  lots of rhinoceros ,  lions ,  mammoth ,  bears remember that the ranges of many animal species were different back then ,  so all these animals actually lived in the region at that time but the chauvet artists didn't paint people there is a half man half bison creature and there is outlines of human hands but no depiction of a full human we don't know but whatever it was ,  it was worth it to them to spend hours deep inside a cave with just a torch between them and utter darkness so ,  on that note ,  let's dim the lights ,  so we can see these slides and actually look at the techniques they used\n\n\nokay ,  we've been discussing films in the 192's and 3's ,  and how back then film categories ,  as we know them today ,  had not yet been established we said that by today's standards ,  many of the films of the 2's and 3's would be considered hybrids ,  that is ,  a mixture of styles that wouldn't exactly fit into any of today's categories and in that context ,  today we are going to talk about a film maker who began making very unique films in the late 192's he was french ,  and his name was jean painlev  jean painlev  was born in 19 2 he made his first film in 1928 now in a way ,  painlev 's films conform to norms of the 2's and 3's ,  that is ,  they don't fit very neatly into the categories we use to classify films today that said ,  even by the standards of the 2's and 3's ,  painlev 's films were a unique hybrid of styles he had a special way of fusing ,  or some people might say ,  confusing ,  science and fiction his films begin with facts ,  but then they become more and more fictional they gradually add more and more fictional elements in fact ,  painlev  was known for saying that science is fiction painlev  was a pioneer in underwater film making ,  and a lot of his short films focused on the aquatic animal world he liked to show small underwater creatures ,  displaying what seemed like familiar human characteristics   what we think of as unique to humans he might take a clip of a mollusk going up and down in the water and set it to music you know ,  to make it look as if the mollusk were dancing to the music like a human being   that sort of thing but then he suddenly changed the image or narration to remind us how different the animals are ,  how unlike humans he confused his audience in the way he portrayed the animals he filmed ,  mixing up our notions of the categories human and animal the films make us a little uncomfortable at times because we are uncertain about what we are seeing it gives him films an uncanny feature  the familiar made unfamiliar ,  the normal made suspicious he liked twists ,  he liked the unusual in fact ,  one of his favorite sea animals was the seahorse because with seahorses ,  it's the male that carries the eggs ,  and he thought that was great his first and most celebrated underwater film is about the seahorse well ,  actually ,  it was pretty rare at that time i mean ,  we are talking the early 193's here ah ,  jacques cousteau well ,  painlev  and cousteau did both film underwater ,  and they were both innovators ,  so you are right in that sense but that's pretty much where the similarities end first of all ,  painlev  was about 2  years ahead of cousteau and cousteau's adventures were high tech ,  with lots of fancy equipment ,  whereas painlev  kind of patchedequipment together as he needed it cousteau usually filmed large animals ,  usually in the open sea ,  whereas painlev  generally filmed smaller animals ,  and he liked to film in shallow water oh well ,  the main difference was that cousteau simply investigated and presented the facts   he didn't mix in fiction he was a strict documentarist he set the standard really for the nature documentary painlev  ,  on the other hand ,  as we said before ,  mixed in elements of fiction and his films are much more artistic ,  incorporating music as an important element i mean ,  everyone's heard of jacques cousteau well ,  that's a fair question uh ,  the short answer is that painlev 's style just never caught on with the general public i mean ,  it probably goes back at least in part to what we mentioned earlier ,  that people didn't know what to make of his films   they were confused by them ,  whereas cousteau's documentaries were very straightforward ,  met people's expectations more than painlev 's films did but you true film history buffs know about him and painlev  is still highly respected in many circles\n\n\nnow ,  we've been talking about the loss of animal habitat from housing developments ,  um  ,  growing cities   small habitat losses but today i wanna begin talking about what happens when habitat is reduced across a large area there are ,  of course ,  animal species that require large areas of habitat ,  and some migrate over very long distances well ,  i'll use the humming birds as an example now you know a humming bird is amazingly small ,  but even though it's really tiny ,  it migrates over very long distances ,  travels up and down the western hemisphere   the americas ,  back and forth between where it breeds in the summer and the warmer climates where it spends the winter well ,  the humming bird beats its wings   get this   about 3 thousand times per minute well ,  it does it drinks a lot of nectar from flowers and feeds on some insects ,  but it's energy efficient too you can't say it isn't i mean ,  as it flies all the way across the gulf of mexico ,  it uses up almost none of its body fat but that doesn't mean it doesn't need to eat so humming birds have to rely on plants in their natural habitat and it goes without saying ,  but ,  well ,  the opposite is true as well ,  plants depend on humming birds too there are some flowers that can only be pollinated by the humming birds without it stopping to feed and spreading pollen from flower to flower ,  these plants would cease to exist but the problem ,  well ,  as natural habitat along these migration routes is developed by humans for housing or agriculture or cleared for raising cattle ,  for instance ,  there is less food available for migrating humming birds their nesting sites are affected too ,  the same ,  by the same sorts of human activities and all of these activities pose a real threat to the humming bird population so to help them survive ,  we need to preserve their habitats and one of the concrete ways people have been doing this is by cleaning up polluted habitat areas and then replanting flowers ,  um ,  replanting native flowers that humming birds feed on promoting ecological tourism is another way to help save their habitat but to understand more about how to protect and support humming birds the best we can ,  we've got to learn more about their breeding ,  nesting sites and migration routes ,  and also about the natural habitats we find there that should help us determine how to prevent further decline in the population a good research method ,  a good way to learn more ,  is by running a banding study banding the birds allows us to track them over their lifetime it's been a practice that's been used by researchers for years in fact ,  most of what we know about humming birds comes from banding studies ,  where we capture a humming bird and make sure all the information about it ,  like its weight and age and length ,  are all recorded ,  put into international ,  an international information database and then we place an extremely lightweight band on one of its legs ,  well ,  what looks like a leg ,  although technically it's considered part of the bird's foot anyway ,  these bands are perfectly safe ,  and some humming birds have worn them for years with no evidence of any problems the band is labeled with a tracking number ,  oh ,  and there is a phone number on the band for people to call for free ,  to report a banded bird they've found or recaptured so when a banded bird is recaptured and reported ,  we learn about its migration route ,  its growth ,  and how long it has been alive ,  its lifespan one recaptured bird had been banded almost 12 years earlier   she is one of the oldest humming birds on record another interesting thing we've learned is that some humming birds ,  um ,  they no longer use a certain route they travel by a different route to reach their destination and findings like these have been of interest to biologists and environmental scientists in a number of countries who are trying to understand the complexities of how changes in a habitat affect the species in it", "source": "toefl_tpo", "evaluation": "exam"}
{"instructions": ["why does the professor discuss the presence of zinc in paint pigments\nA. to explain why some paints may deteriorate over the course of time\nB. to stress the need for caution when attempting to restore old artworks\nC. to show how pigments differ from varnishes and binding agents\nD. to show how spectroscopy can help establish the age of a painting", "what is the main purpose of the first lecture\nA. to discuss recent innovations in laboratory equipment\nB. to give an example of a practical use for a particular scientific technique\nC. to familiarize students with the chemical composition of paint pigments\nD. to show how researchers were able to restore a particular work of art", "what does the professor imply when he mentions an art historian\nA. art historians have been learning how to use spectroscopes\nB. scientists need to learn how art historians analyze paintings\nC. confirming the authenticity of artworks requires collaboration\nD. spectroscopic analysis can help identify a painter's techniques", "according to the professor , what is the primary advantage of spectroscopy over other laboratory methods for analyzing artworks\nA. it does not damage the artworks\nB. it provides a more accurate analysis than other methods do\nC. it uses equipment that can be transferred to other locations\nD. it can be used by individuals with little scientific training", "what does the professor mean when he says that folktales are communal\nA. they vary little form one community to another\nB. they serve to strengthen tiles among individuals within a community\nC. they relate important events in the history of a community\nD. they can be adapted to meet the needs of a community", "why does the professor clarify the concept of a fairy tale\nA. to explain the origins of the term fairy tale\nB. to eliminate a possible definition of the term fairy tale\nC. to support a claim about the function of fairy tales\nD. to indicate that fairies are a major element in fairy tale", "what does the professor say about the setting of fairy tales\nA. the tales are usually set in a nonspecific location\nB. the location is determined by the country of origin of a tale\nC. the tales are set in a location familiar to the author\nD. a storyteller varies the location of a tale depending on the audience", "what is the second lecture mainly about\nA. oral traditions in folktales and fairy tales\nB. common characters and plots in folktales and fairy tales\nC. differences between folktales and fairy tales\nD. hidden meaning in folktales and fairy tales", "why does the professor consider it important to find out if water ice exists on the moon\nA. water ice could be processed to provide breathable air for astronauts\nB. one component of water ice could be used as a fuel for rockets\nC. water ice could contain evidence of primitive life on the moon\nD. water ice could be tested to find out what type of meteors crashed into the moon", "why does the professor mention the moon's mantle\nA. to explain why scientists believe that meteor impacts cannot affect the moon's mantle\nB. to explain what kind of information scientists hope to obtain from the mantle\nC. to point out that the moon's crust and mantle are made of similar materials\nD. to point out that the moon's mantle and earth's mantle have different compositions", "what is the main purpose of the third lecture\nA. to explain why scientists disagree about the age of the moon\nB. to present arguments in favor of another moon landing\nC. to explain how scientists discovered a crater on the far side of the moon\nD. to review some finding of a recent mission to the moon", "why is the south pole aitken basin thought to be exceptionally old\nA. the walls of the basin are more reflective than those of most other craters\nB. testing of rocks from the basin's floor proves them to be as old as the moon itself\nC. many small craters have been detected at the bottom of the basin\nD. a large amount of dust has been detected in and around the basin", "what is the main purpose of the last lecture\nA. to introduce a method that can help students remember new information\nB. to introduce a way to study how information passes from one person to another\nC. to explain the differences between biological information and cultural information\nD. to explain the differences between stories , songs , and other pieces of information", "what example does the professor give of a meme's longevity\nA. a story has been changing since it first appeared in the\nB. a person remembers a story for many years\nC. a gene is passed on through many generations without changing\nD. a song quickly becomes popular all over the world", "why does the professor tell the story about alligators\nA. to explain the difference between true and false stories\nB. to draw an analogy between alligator reproduction and cultural transmission\nC. to give an example of a piece of information that functions as a meme\nD. to show how a story can gradually change into a song", "what does the professor compare to a housefly laying many eggs\nA. a child learning many different ideas from or her parents\nB. alligators reproducing in new york sewers\nC. different people remembering different versions of a story\nD. a person singing the twinkle , twinkle song many times"], "outputs": ["D", "B", "C", "A", "D", "B", "A", "C", "B", "B", "B", "C", "B", "B", "C", "D"], "input": "okay i know you all have a lot of questions about this lab assignment that's coming out so    i'm gonna take a little time this morning to discuss it and your reading should help you get a good idea of what that's all about but ,  let's talk about spectroscopy a little now just to cover the basics well ,  the simplest definition i can give you is that spectroscopy is the study of the interaction between matter and light now ,  visible light consists of different colors or wavelengths ,  which together make up what's called spectrum ,  a band of colors ,  like you see in a rainbow and all substances ,  all forms of matter ,  can be distinguished according to what wavelength of light they absorb and which ones they reflect it's like ,  um ,  well ,  every element has ,  what we call ,  its own spectral signature if we can read that signature ,  we can identify the element and that's exactly what spectroscopy does now ,  laser spectroscopy ,  which is the focus of your assignment ,  works by measuring very precisely what parts of the spectrum are absorbed by different substances and it has applications in a lot of different disciplines and your assignment will be to choose a discipline that interests you ,  and devise an experiment for example ,  i'm gonna talk about art i'm interested in the art and to me it's interesting how spectroscopy is used to analyze art let's say a museum curator comes to you with a problem she's come across this painting that appears to be an original   let's say ,  a rembrandt and she wants to acquire it for her museum but she's got a problem  she's not absolutely certain it's an original okay think about the scientific process so first ,  you'll need to make a list of characteristics the painting would have to have to be a rembrandt then you have to discover whether the painting in question has those characteristics so first of all ,  you'll need to know the techniques rembrandt used when he applied paint to canvas   his brushstrokes ,  how thickly he applied his paint so you'd need to work with an art historian who has expert knowledge of rembrandt's style you'd have to know when he created his paintings ,  um   what pigments he used ,  in other words ,  what ingredients he used to make different colors of paint ,   cause the ingredients used in paints and binding agents plus burnishes ,  finishes ,  what have you ,  have changed over time since you're trying to verify if it's a rembrandt ,  the ingredients in the pigment would need to have been used during rembrandt's lifetime   in the 17th century and that's where chemistry comes in you've got to find out what's in those pigments ,  learn their composition ,  and that requires lab work   detective work really   in a word ,  spectroscopy well ,  we put an infrared microscope   a spectroscope   on tiny tiny bits of paint and using ultraviolet light we can see the spectral signature of each component part of the pigment then we compare these signatures with those of particular elements like zinc or lead ,  to determine what the pigment was made of say we determined a pigment was made with zinc ,  for example we know the spectral signature of zinc and it matches that of the paint sample we also know that zinc wasn't discovered until the 18th century and since rembrandt lived during the 17th century ,  we know he couldn't have painted it now ,  spectroscopy has a very distinct advantage over previous methods of analyzing our works ,  because it's not invasive you don't have to remove big chips of paint to do your analysis ,  which is what other methods require all you do is train the microscope on tiny flecks of paint and analyze them now a word or two about restoration sometimes original art works appear questionable or inauthentic because they've had so many restorers add touch up layers to cover up damage ,  damage from the paint having deteriorated over time well ,  spectroscopy can reveal the composition of those touch up layers too so we can find out when they were applied then if we want to undo some bad restoration attempts ,  we can determine what kind of process we can use to remove them to dissolve the paint and uncover the original\n\n\nnow we can't really talk about fairy tales without first talking about folktales because there's a strong connection between these two genres ,  these two types of stories in fact ,  many fairy tales started out as folktales well ,  they are old stories ,  traditional stories they were passed down orally within cultures from generation to generation ,  so they changed a lot over time i mean ,  every storyteller ,  or ,  maybe every town ,  might have had a slightly different version of the same folktale that's right there's local difference and that's why we say folktales are communal by communal ,  we mean they reflect the traits and the concerns of a particular community at a particular time so essentially the same tale could be told in different communities ,  with certain aspects of the tale adapted to fit the specific community um ,  not the plot ,  the details of what happens in the story would remain constant that was the thread that held the tale together but all the other elements ,  like the location or characters ,  might be modified for each audience okay and don't anyone say  a story with a fairy in it  because we all know that very few fairy tales actually have those tiny magical creatures in them mary well ,  they seem to be less realistic than folktales like they have something improbable happening   a frog turning into a prince ,  say oh ,  that's another common element ,  royalty   a prince or princess and fairy tales all seem to take place in a location that's nowhere and everywhere at the same time once upon a time ,  in a faraway land   oh ,  in the case of folktales ,  each storyteller would specify a particular location and time ,  though the time and location would differ for different storytellers with fairy tales ,  however ,  the location is generally unspecified ,  no matter who the storyteller is that land far away   we'll come back to this point in a few minutes um   i ,  i thought that a fairy tale was just a written version of an oral folktale well ,  not exactly ,  though that is how many fairy tales developed for example ,  in the late 18th century ,  the grimm brothers traveled throughout what's now germany ,  recording local folktales these were eventually published as fairy tales ,  but not before undergoing a process of evolution now ,  a number of things happen when an oral tale gets written down first ,  the language changes it becomes more formal ,  more standard   some might say ,   less colorful  it's like the difference in your language depending on whether you are talking to someone ,  or writing them a letter second ,  when an orally transmitted story is written down ,  an authoritative version with a recognized author is created the communal aspect gets lost the tale no longer belongs to the community it belongs to the world ,  so to speak because of this ,  elements like place and time can no longer be tailored to suit a particular audience so they become less identifiable ,  more generalizable to any audience on the other hand ,  descriptions of characters and settings can be developed more completely in folktales ,  characters might be identified by a name ,  but you wouldn't know anything more about them but in fairy tales ,  people no longer have to remember plots so more energy can be put into other elements of the story like character and setting so you get more details about the characters ,  about where the action takes place ,  what people's houses were like ,  ur ,  whether they're small cabins or grand palaces and it's worth investing that energy because the story ,  now in book form ,  isn't in danger of being lost those details won't be forgotten if a folktale isn't repeated by each generation ,  it may be lost for all time but with a fairy tale ,  it's always there in a book ,  waiting to be discovered ,  again and again another interesting difference involves the change in audience contrary to what many people believe today ,  folktales were originally intended for adults ,  not for children\n\n\nlast week ,  we covered some arguments against going back to the moon but there are compelling reasons in favor of another moon landing too ,  um  not the least of which is trying to pinpoint the moon's age we could do this in theory by studying an enormous impact crater ,  known as the south pole aitken basin um it's located in the moon's south polar region but ,  since it's on the far side of the moon ,  it can only be seen from space here is an image of we'll call it the spa basin this color coated image of the spa basin ,  those aren't its actual colors obviously ,  this image is from the mid 9's ,  from the american spacecraft called clementine um  unlike earlier lunar missions ,  clementine didn't orbit only around the moon's equator its orbits enabled it to send back data to create this topographical map of   well ,  the grey and white area towards the bottom is the south pole ,  the purples and blues in the middle correspond to low elevations   the spa basin itself ,  the oranges and reds around it are higher elevations the basin measures an amazing 2 , 5   km in diameter ,  and its average depth is 12 km that makes it the biggest known crater in our solar system and it may well be the oldest you know planetary researchers love studying deep craters to learn about the impacts that created them ,  how they redistributed pieces of the planet's crust and in this case ,  we especially want to know if any of the mantle ,  the layer beneath the crust ,  was exposed by the impact not everyone agrees ,  but some experts are convinced that whatever created the spa basin did penetrate the moon's mantle and we need to find out ,  because much more than the crust ,  the mantle contains information about a planet's or moon's total composition and that's key to understanding planet formation well ,  from radio survey data ,  we know that the basin contains lots of smaller craters so it must be really old ,  about 4 billion years ,  give or take a few hundred million years but that's not very precise if we had rock samples to study ,  we'd know whether these small craters were formed by impacts during the final stages of planetary formation ,  or if they resulted from later meteor showers but if we know around how old the basin is ,  i'm not sure that's reason enough to go to the moon again no  ,  but such crude estimates um we can do better than that clementine's data indicated that the wall of the south polar crater was more reflective than expected so some experts think there's probably ice there also ,  data from a later mission indicates significant concentrations of hydrogen and by inference water less than a meter underground at both poles we think meteors that crashed into the moon or tails of passing comets may have introduced water molecules any water molecules that found their way to the floors of craters near the moon's poles ,  that water would be perpetually frozen ,  because the floors of those craters are always in shadow um furthermore ,  if the water ice was mixed in with rock and dust ,  it would be protected from evaporation that's not my point at all um  o k ,  say there is water ice on the moon that would be of very practical value for a future moon base for astronauts water ice could be melted and purified for drinking it could also be broken down into its component parts   oxygen and hydrogen oxygen could be used to breathe ,  and hydrogen could be turned into fuel ,  rocket fuel so water ice could enable the creation of a self sustaining moon base someday ,  a mining camp perhaps or a departure point for further space exploration permanent base ,  maybe a ways off ,  but we shouldn't have to wait for that the dust at the bottom of the spa basin really does have a fascinating story to tell i wouldn't give for a few samples of it\n\n\nthe story goes like this  a family went on vacation in florida and bought a couple of baby alligators as presents for their children ,  then returned from vacation to new york ,  bringing the alligators home with them as pets but the alligators would escape and find their way into the new york sewer system where they started reproducing ,  grew to huge sizes and now strike fear into sewer workers well ,  it isn't true and it never happened but despite that ,  the story has been around since the 193's or how about the song  twinkle ,  twinkle little star  ,  you know ,   twinkle ,  twinkle ,  little star ,  how i wonder what you are  well we've all heard this song well ,  both the song and the story are examples of memes and that's what we would talk about ,  the theory of memes a meme is defined as a piece of information copied from person to person by this definition ,  most of what you know ,  ideas ,  skills ,  stories ,  songs are memes all the words you know ,  all the scientific theories you've learned ,  the rules your parents taught you to observe ,  all are memes that have been passed on from person to person you may say passing on ideas from one person to another is nothing new well ,  the whole point of defining this familiar process as transmission of memes is so that we can explore its analogy with the transmission of genes as you know ,  all living organisms pass on biological information through the genes a gene is a piece of biological information that gets copied or replicated ,  and the copy or replica is passed on to the new generation so genes are defined as replicators genes are replicators that pass on information about properties and characteristics of organisms by analogy ,  memes also get replicated and in the process pass on cultural information from person to person ,  generation to generation so memes are also replicators to be a successful replicator ,  there are three key characteristics  longevity ,  fecundity and fidelity let's take a closer look first ,  longevity a replicator must exist long enough to be able to get copied ,  and transfer its information clearly ,  the longer a replicator survives ,  the better its chances of getting its message copied and passed on so longevity is a key characteristic of a replicator if you take the alligator story ,  it can exist for a long time in individual memory ,  let's say ,  my memory i can tell you the story now or ten years from now ,  the same with the twinkle ,  twinkle song so these memes have longevity because they are memorable for one reason or another next ,  fecundity fecundity is the ability to reproduce in large numbers for example ,  the common housefly reproduces by laying several thousand eggs ,  so each fly gene gets copied thousands of times memes ,  well ,  they can be reproduced in large numbers as well each time you replicated that song ,  and maybe passed it along to someone who did not know it yet ,  a small child maybe and finally ,  fidelity fidelity means accuracy of the copying process we know fidelity is an essential principle of genetic transmission if a copy of a gene is a bit different from the original ,  that's called a genetic mutation and mutations are usually bad news an organism often cannot survive with a mutated gene and so a gene usually cannot be passed on ,  unless it's an exact copy for memes however ,  fidelity is not always so important for example ,  if you tell someone the alligator story i told you today ,  it probably won't be word for word exactly as i said it still ,  it will be basically the same story ,  and the person who hears the story will be able to pass it along other memes are replicated with higher fidelity though ,  like the twinkle ,  twinkle song it had the exact same words 2  years ago as it does now well ,  that's because we see songs as something that has to be performed accurately each time if you change a word ,  the others will usually bring you in line so ,  you can see how looking at pieces of cultural information as replicators ,  as memes ,  and analyzing them in terms of longevity ,  fecundity and fidelity ,  we can gain some insight about how they spread ,  persist or change ", "source": "toefl_tpo", "evaluation": "exam"}
{"instructions": ["what point does the professor make about the nightcap oak's habitat\nA. it is stable despite its limited size\nB. unlike the habitats of many plants , it is expanding\nC. its recent changes have left the nightcap oak struggling to adapt\nD. its size is much larger than the area where the nightcap oak grows", "what topic related to the nightcap oak does the professor mainly discuss\nA. factors that relate to the size of the area in which it grows\nB. the size of its population over the last few centuries\nC. whether anything can be done to ensure its survival\nD. why it did not change much over the last one hundred million years", "according to the professor , what are two factors that prevent nightcap oak population from spreading\nA. the complex conditions required for the trees to produce fruit\nB. the fact that the seed cannot germinate while locked inside the shell\nC. the limited time the seed retain the ability to germinate\nD. competition with tree species that evolved more recently", "why does the professor mention the size of the nightcap oak population over the last few hundred years\nA. to explain why it is likely the nightcap oak population will increase in the future\nB. to point out that nightcap oak's limited reproductive success has not led to a decrease in its population\nC. to present evidence that the nightcap oak is able to tolerate major changes in its environment\nD. to point out that the nightcap oak is able to resist diseases that have destroyed other tree species", "the professor mentions a theory that people migrating from the sahara were important to the development of the egyptian civilization , which sentence best describes the professor's attitude toward this theory\nA. it is exciting because it perfectly explains recent archaeological discoveries\nB. it is problematic because it goes too far beyond the generally available data\nC. it raises an interesting possibility and he hopes to see more evidence for it\nD. it cannot be taken seriously until it explains how the migrants got to egypt", "not long ago , the sahara had a different climate , what evidence does the professor mention to support this\nA. ancient pollen\nB. bones from large animals\nC. rock paintings\nD. agriculture in ancient egypt", "in the lecture , what do the ice age and the creation of the sahara desert both illustrate about past climate changes\nA. that some climate changes benefitted the development of civilization\nB. that some climate changes were not caused by human activity\nC. that some climate change were caused by a decrease of moisture in the atmosphere\nD. that some climate changes were caused by changes in earth's motion and position", "what started the runway effect that led to the sahara area of north africa becoming a desert\nA. the prevailing winds became stronger\nB. the seasonal rains moved to a different area\nC. the vegetation started to die off in large areas\nD. the soil lost its ability to retain rainwater", "what is the second lecture mainly about\nA. an example of rapid climate change\nB. a comparison of two mechanisms of climate change\nC. the weather conditions in the present day sahara\nD. recent geological findings made in the sahara", "why does the professor recommend that students pay attention to the people they see every day\nA. the behavior and characteristics of these people can be used in character sketches\nB. observing people in real life situations can provide ideas for story plots\nC. it is easier to observe the behavior of familiar people than of new people\nD. students can gather accurate physical description for their characters", "what aspect creative writing does the professor mainly discuss\nA. how to keep a reader's interest\nB. how to create believable characters\nC. key differences between major and minor characters\nD. techniques for developing short story plots", "the professor discusses an example of three friends who run out of gas , what point does he use the example to illustrate\nA. writers should know their characters as well as they know their friends\nB. writers should create characters that interact in complex ways\nC. friends do not always behave the way we expect them to behave\nD. friends'sbehavior is often more predictable than fictional characters'sbehavior", "what were some of the factors that contributed to the tulip craze in the netherlands in the seventeenth century\nA. wealthy gardeners liked to complete for rare plants\nB. the number of people with disposable income was growing\nC. tulip bulbs were initially cheap and easy to obtain\nD. tulips in the wild bloomed in unusual color combination", "the professor mentions the practice of trading promissory note in the netherlands in the 1630s , what does this practice explain\nA. why tulips replaced gold as a form of currency\nB. why buyers were no longer interested in owning actual tulips\nC. why borrowing in the netherlands increased on a significant scale\nD. why the middle class in the netherlands expanded in size", "what is the professor's opinion about the dot com crash\nA. she thinks that people should have realized it would happen\nB. she does not believe that anything like it will happen again\nC. she is surprised that it did not have more serious consequences\nD. she is confident that people learned a valuable lesson from it", "why does the professor mention a merchant who ate tulip bulbs\nA. to explain how the turks introduce the flower to european visitors\nB. to explain what happened to tulip bulbs that did not produce desirable colors\nC. to give an example of one way that the rich in the netherlands showed off their wealth\nD. to illustrate her point that europeans were unfamiliar with the flower", "according to the professor , where did tulips originate\nA. the mountains of central asia\nB. the region around istanbul in turkey\nC. the sandy soils of the netherlands\nD. the forests of northern europe", "what is the main purpose of the last talk\nA. to show what happens after an economy has experienced a boom and bust cycle\nB. to illustrate the conditions needed to produce a boom and bust cycle\nC. to demonstrate how boom and bust cycles have changed over time\nD. to explain why the boom and bust cycle is not a frequent historical occurrence"], "outputs": ["D", "B", "C", "B", "C", "C", "D", "B", "A", "A", "B", "A", "D", "C", "A", "D", "A", "C"], "input": "ok ,  i have an interesting plant species to discuss with you today uh it's a species of a very rare tree that grows in australia ,  eidothea hardeniana ,  but it's better known as the nightcap oak now ,  it was discovered only very recently ,  just a few years ago um  it remained hidden for so long because it's so rare there are only about 2   of them in existence they grow in a rain forest ,  in a mountain rage range in the north part of new south wales which is uh  a state in australia so just 2   individual trees in all now another interesting thing about the nightcap oak is that it is it represents uh a very old type uh kind of tree that grew a hundred million years ago um ,  we found fossils that old that bear remarkable resemblance to the tree so ,  it's a primitive tree a a living fossil you might say it's relic from earlier times and it has survived all these years without much change and it it's probably a kind of tree from which other trees that grow in australia today evolved just to give you an idea of what we are talking about here's a picture of the leaves of the tree and its flowers i don't know how well you can see the flowers they're those little clusters sitting at the base of the leaves it's one of the first questions it's another question um ,  maybe those two questions are actually related hmm  i don't know but i can imagine that for instance ,  seed dispersal might be a factor i mean if the er you know ,  if the seeds cannot really disperse in the wild area ,  then ,  you know ,  the tree may not colonize new areas it can't spread from the area where it's growing right that's that's actually a very good answer uh ,  of course ,  you might think there might not be many areas where the tree could spread into ,  er because um well ,  it's very specialized in terms of the habitat but ,  that's not really the case here um the suitable habitat ,  that is ,  the actual rainforest is much larger than the few hectares where the nightcap oak grows now this tree is a flowering tree as i showed you um um it produces a fruit ,  much like a plum on the inci inside there's a seed with a hard shell it it appears that the shell has to crack open or break down somewhat to allow the seed to soak up water you know ,  if the nightcap oak remains if their seeds remain locked inside their shell ,  they will not germinate actually ,  the seeds er they don't retain the power to germinate for very long ,  maybe two years so there's actually quite a short window of opportunity for the seed to germinate so the shell somehow has to be broken down before this um germination ability expires and and then there's a kind of rat that likes to feed on the seeds as well so ,  given all these limitations ,  not many seeds that the tree produces will actually germinate so this is a possible explanation for why the tree does not spread it doesn't necessarily explain how it became so rare ,  but it explains why it doesn't increase ok ,  so it seems to be the case that the species ,  this nightcap oak is not very good at spreading however ,  it seems ,  though we can't be sure ,  that it's very good at persisting as a population um we there's some indications to suggest that the population of the nightcap oak has not declined over the last er you know ,  many hundreds of years so it's stayed quite stable it's not a remnant of some huge population that is dwindled in the last few hundred years for some reason it's not necessarily a species in retreat ok ,  so it cannot spread very well ,  but it's good at maintaining itself it's rare ,  but it's not disappearing ok ,  the next thing we might want to ask about a plant like that is what chances does it have to survive into the future let's look at that\n\n\nwe're really just now beginning to understand how quickly drastic climate change can take place we can see past occurrences of climate change that took place over just a few hundred years take uh  the sahara desert in northern africa the sahara was really different 6 ,     years ago i mean ,  you wouldn't call it a tropical paradise or anything ,  uh or maybe you would if you think about how today in some parts of the sahara it it only rains about once a century um  but basically ,  you had greenery and you had water they need to live near a large source of water year around okay ,  in principle they could ,  karl but the rock paintings aren't the only evidence beneath the sahara are huge aquifers ,  basically a sea of fresh water ,  that's perhaps a million years old filtered through rock layers and er and then there is fossilized pollen ,  from low shrubs and grasses that once grew in the sahara in fact these plants still grow ,  er but hundreds of miles away ,  in more vegetated areas anyway ,  it's this fossilized pollen along with the aquifers and the rock paintings ,  these three things are all evidence that the sahara was once much greener than it is today ,  that there were hippos and probably elephants and giraffes and so on the planet was practically covered in ice just a few thousand years ago okay ,  a monsoon is a seasonal wind that can bring in a large amount of rainfall well ,  the answer is  the dynamics of earth's motions ,  the same thing that caused the ice age by the way the earth's not always the same distance from the sun ,  and it's not always tilting toward the sun at the same angle there are slight variations in these two parameters they're gradual variations but their effects can be pretty abrupt and can cause the climate to change in just a few hundred years well ,  yeah ,  considering that other climate shifts take thousands of years ,  this one is pretty abrupt so these changes in the planet's motions ,  they caused the climate to change but it was also compounded what the sahara experienced was uh a sort of  runaway drying effect  as i said the monsoon migrated itself ,  so there was less rain in the sahara and then ,  less vegetation means the soil can't hold water as well ,  the soil loses its ability to retain water when it does rain so then you have less moisture to help clouds form ,  nothing to evaporate for cloud formation and then the cycle continues ,  less rain ,  drier soil ,  less vegetation ,  fewer clouds ,  less rain etc good question no one really knows but there might be some connections to ancient egypt at about the same time that the sahara was becoming a desert hmm   5 ,     years ago ,  egypt really began to flourish out in the nile river valley and that's not that far away so it's only logical to hypothesize that a lot of these people migrated to the nile valley when they realized that this was more than a temporary drought and some people take this a step further and that's okay ,  that's science and they hypothesize that this migration actually provided an important impetus in the development of ancient egypt well ,  we'll stay tuned on that\n\n\nalright everybody ,  the topic for today is ,  well ,  we're gonna take a look at how to start creating the characters for the stories you're writing one way of doing that is to come up with what's called  a character sketch  ,  i don't mean a sketch like a drawing ,  i guess that's obvious it's um it's a a sketch is a way of getting started on defining your characters  personalities i mean we don't create them out of nothing we base them ,  consciously or unconsciously ,  we base them on real people ,  or we blend several people's traits ,  their attributes into one character but when people think fiction ,  they may assume the characters come from the author's imagination but the writer's imagination is influenced by  by real people ,  could be anyone ,  so ,  pay attention to the people you meet ,  someone in class ,  at the gym ,  that guy who is always sitting in the corner at the coffee house ,  um  your cousin ,  who's always getting into dangerous situations we're pulling from reality ,  gathering bits and pieces of real people you use these people ,  and the bits of behavior or characteristics as a starting point as you begin to sketch out your characters here is what you should think about doing first when you begin to formulate a story ,  make a list of interesting people you know or have observed consider why they're unique or annoying then make notes about their unusual or dominant attributes as you create fictional characters ,  you'll almost always combine characteristics from several different people on your list to form the identity and personality of just one character keeping this kind of character sketch can help you solidify your character's personality ,  so that it remains consistent throughout your story you need to define your characters ,  know their personalities so that you can have them acting in ways that are predictable ,  consistent with their personalities say you have three friends ,  their car runs out of gas on the highway john gets upset mary remains calm teresa takes charge of handling the situation and let's say ,  both john and mary defer to her leadership they call you to explain what happen and when john tells you he got mad ,  you're not surprised ,  because he always gets frustrated when things go wrong then he tells you how teresa took charge ,  calmed him down ,  assigned tasks for each person and got them on their way again ,  you're not surprised it's exactly what you'd expect well ,  you need to know your characters ,  like you know your friends if you know a lot about a person's character ,  it's easy to predict how they'll behave so if your characters  personalities are well defined ,  it will be easy for you as the writer to portray them realistically er  believably ,  in any given situation while writing character sketches ,  do think about details ask yourself questions ,  even if you don't use the details in your story ,  um what does each character like to eat ,  what setting does each prefer ,  the mountains ,  the city ,  what about educational background ,  their reactions to success or defeat ,  write it all down but ,  here i need to warn you about a possible pitfall don't make your character into a stereotype remember the reader needs to know how your character is different from other people who might fall in the same category maybe your character loves the mountains and has lived in a remote area for years to make sure he is not a stereotype ,  ask yourself how he sees life differently from other people who live in that kind of setting be careful not to make him into the clich  of the  ragged mountain dweller  okay ,  now ,  i'll throw out a little terminology it's easy stuff major characters are sometimes called  round characters  minor characters are sometimes called ,  well ,  just the opposite ,   flat  a round character is fully developed  a flat character isn't ,  character development is fairly limited the flat character tends to serve mainly as a motivating factor for instance ,  you introduce a flat character who has experienced some sort of defeat and then your round ,  your main character who loves success and loves to show off ,  comes and boasts about succeeding and jokes about the flat character's defeat in front of others ,  humiliates the other guy the flat character is introduced solely for the purpose of allowing the round character to show off\n\n\nthe dot com crash of the  9's ok the boom in the late 199's when all those new internet companies sprang up and were then sold for huge amounts of money then the bust around 2    2  1 when many of those same internet companies went out of business of course ,  booms aren't always followed by busts we've certainly seen times when local economies expanded rapidly for a while and then went back to a normal pace of growth but ,  there's a type of rapid expansion ,  what might be called a hysterical or irrational boom that pretty much always leads to a bust see ,  people often create and intensify a boom when they get carried away by some new industry that seems like it will make them lots of money fast you'd think that by the 9's ,  people would have learned from the past if they did ,  well ,  look at tulips exactly originally i mean that's what most people think ,  but no they are not native to the netherlands ,  or even europe tulips actually hail from an area that chinese call the celestial mountains in central asia a very remote mountainous region it was turkish nomads who first discovered tulips and spread them slowly westward now ,  around the 16th century ,  europeans were traveling to istanbul and turkey as merchants and diplomats and the turks often gave the europeans tulip bulbs as gifts which they would carry home with them for the europeans ,  tulips were totally unheard of er a great novelty he thought they were kind of onion it turns out that the netherlands was an ideal country for growing tulips it had the right kind of sandy soil for one thing ,  but also ,  it was a wealthy nation with a growing economy ,  willing to spend lots of money on new exotic things plus ,  the dutch had a history of gardening wealthy people would compete ,  spending enormous amounts of money to buy the rarest flowers for their gardens soon tulips were beginning to show up in different colors as growers tried to breed them specifically for colors which would make them even more valuable but they were never completely sure what they would get some of the most prized tulips were white with purple streaks ,  or red with yellow streaks on the petals ,  even a dark purple tulip that was very much prized what happened then was a craze for these specialized tulips we called that craze  tulip mania  so ,  here we've got all the conditions for an irrational boom  a prospering economy ,  so more people had more disposable income money to spend on luxuries ,  but they weren't experienced at investing their new wealth then along comes a thrilling new commodity sure the first specimens were just plain old red tulips ,  but they could be bred into some extraordinary variations ,  like the dark purple tulip and finally ,  you have an unregulated market place ,  no government constraints ,  where prices could explode and explode they did ,  starting in the 163's there was always much more demand for tulips than supply tulips didn't bloom frequently like roses tulips bloomed once in the early spring and that was it for the year eventually ,  specially bred multicolored tulips became so valuable ,  well ,  according to records ,  one tulip bulb was worth 24 tons of wheat ,  or a thousand pounds of cheese one particular tulip bulb was sold and exchanged for a small ship in other words ,  tulips were literally worth their weight in gold as demand grew ,  people began selling promissory notes guaranteeing the future delivery of prized tulip bulbs the buyers of these pieces of paper would resell the notes at marked up prices these promissory notes kept changing hands from buyer to buyer until the tulip was ready for delivery but it was all pure speculation because as i said ,  there was no way to know if the bulb was really going to produce the variety ,  the color that was promised but that didn't matter to the owner of the note the owner only cared about having that piece of paper so it could be traded later at a profit and people were borrowing ,  mortgaging their homes in many cases to obtain those bits of paper because they were sure they found an easy way to make money so now ,  you've got all the ingredients for a huge bust and bust it did ,  when one cold february morning in 1637 ,  a group of bulb traders got together and discovered that suddenly there were no bidders nobody wanted to buy panic spread like wild fire and the tulip market collapsed totally", "source": "toefl_tpo", "evaluation": "exam"}
{"instructions": ["why does the professor decide not to add more information to the diagram on the board\nA. she wants students to complete the diagram themselves as an assignment\nB. she needs to look up some information in order to complete the diagram accurately\nC. the additional information is not relevant to the topic that she wants to discuss next\nD. students already have the additional information in their textbook", "what surprising information did a recent experiment reveal about lesser spear nosed bats\nA. they filter out echoes from some types of trees\nB. they can analyze echoes from stationary objects with complex surfaces\nC. they cannot analyze jagged echoes\nD. they cannot analyze echoes from certain types of small moving objects", "what is the first lecture mainly about\nA. how animals emit ultrasonic pulses\nB. how bats use acoustical signals\nC. a comparison of echolocation and radar\nD. variations among bats in the use of ultrasound", "according to the professor , why does a pine tree produce a smooth echo\nA. because it has a smooth trunk\nB. because it has large branches spaced at regular intervals\nC. because it has many small , densely packed needles\nD. because it remains stationary in all types of weather", "why does the professor mention a conversation between two servants\nA. to give examples of typical characters in a well made play\nB. to show how background information might be revealed in a well made play\nC. to explain why romeo and juliet can be considered a well made play\nD. to explain how playwrights develop the obligatory scene of a well made play", "what is the lecture mainly about\nA. the importance of creating believable characters in plays\nB. the influence of the literature of realism on french theater\nC. a successful standard formula for writing plays\nD. a famous example of a well made play", "according to the professor , why did some playwrights write the end of a play before the beginning\nA. to produce multiple scripts as quickly as possible\nB. to prevent the audience from using logic to guess the endings\nC. to avoid writing endings similar to those of other plays\nD. to ensure that the plot would develop in a logical manner", "according to the professor , what dramatic elements are typically included in a well made play to help move the plot forward\nA. a series of major changes in the hero's apparent chances of success\nB. the introduction of new characters midway through the play\nC. information known to the audience but not to the main characters\nD. the movement of major characters from one setting to another", "what does the professor imply about compression and extension\nA. he believes it accounts for a great deal of glacial movement\nB. he thinks it is a slower type of a glacial movement than basal slip\nC. he is not convinced that it is a type of glacial movement\nD. he does not agree that it causes fissures in glaciers", "what factors are involved in the amount of deformation a glacier undergoes\nA. the thickness of glacial ice\nB. the hardness of glacial ice\nC. the amount of water beneath the glacial ice\nD. the temperature of the glacial ice", "what is the third lecture mainly about\nA. explanations of how glaciers move\nB. landscape changes caused by glacial movement\nC. climate changes that influence glacial movement\nD. causes of glacial formation", "what does the professor say about the speed of glaciers\nA. it affects the amount of glacial ice that forms\nB. it can be fast enough for movement to be noticeable\nC. it is reduced by cracks in the ice\nD. it is unusually high in colder regions", "what is the last lecture mainly about\nA. different kinds of trees used for building canoes\nB. various methods of native american transportation\nC. the value of birth trees to some native american groups\nD. the trading of birth wood products by europeans in north america", "according to the professor , why was the canoe important to some native american groups\nA. there was a network of waterways where they lived\nB. snowy winters made land travel too difficult\nC. some native american groups sold their canoes to other groups\nD. canoe travel helped form relationship between groups of native americans", "why does the professor mention french traders who arrived in the iroquois region\nA. to illustrate how far news of the iroquois canoe design had traveled\nB. to explain the kinds of objects the iroquois received in exchange for their canoes\nC. to support her point about how efficient the iroquois canoe design was\nD. to emphasize that the iroquois were first settlers in that region", "according to the professor , what characteristic of birth bark made it useful to native americans\nA. it repels water\nB. it can be eaten\nC. it is easy to find\nD. it has a rough texture"], "outputs": ["D", "B", "B", "C", "B", "C", "D", "C", "A", "D", "A", "B", "C", "D", "C", "C"], "input": "professor  so ,  that is how elephants use infrasound now ,  let's talk about the other end of the acoustical spectrum ,  sound that is too high for humans to hear   ultrasound ultrasound is used by many animals that detect and some of them send out very high frequency sounds carol carol  well ,  bats ,  since they are all blind ,  bats have to use sound for ,  you know ,  to keep from flying into things professor  that is echolocation echolocation is pretty self explanatory  using echoes reflected sound waves to locate things as carol said ,  bats use it for navigation and orientation mike mike  well ,  finding food is always important ,  and i guess not becoming food for other animals professor  right ,  on both counts avoiding other predators ,  and locating prey ,  typically insects that fly around at night now before i go on ,  let me just respond to something carol was saying    this idea that bats are blind actually ,  there are some species of bats ,  the ones that don't use echolocation that do rely on their vision for navigation ,  but it is true that for many bats ,  their vision is too weak to count on ok ,  so quick summary of how echolocation works the bat emits these ultrasonic pulses ,  very high pitch sound waves that we cannot hear and then ,  they analyze the echoes ,  how the waves bounce back here ,  let me finish this diagram i started before class so the bat sends out these pulses ,  very focused bursts of sound ,  and echoes bounce back you know ,  i don't think i need to draw on the echoes ,  your reading assignment for the next class  it has a diagram that shows this very clearly so ,  anyway ,  as i were saying ,  by analyzing these echoes ,  the bat can determine ,  say ,  if there is wall in a cave that it needs to avoid ,  and how far away it is another thing it uses ultrasound to detect is the size and shape of objects for example ,  one echo they quickly identify is the one they associate with a moth ,  which is common prey for a bat ,  particularly a moth beating its wings however ,  moth happened to have a major advantage over most other insects they can detect ultrasound  this means that when a bat approaches ,  the moth can detect the bat's presence so ,  it has time to escape to safety ,  or else they can just remain motionless since ,  when they stop beating their wings ,  they'd be much harder for the bat to distinguish from ,  oh  a leaf or some other object now ,  we have tended to underestimate just how sophisticated the abilities of animals that use ultrasound are in fact ,  we kind of assumed that they were filtering a lot out ,  the way a sophisticated radar system can ignore echoes from stationary objects on the ground radar does this to remove ground clutter ,  information about hills or buildings that it doesn't need but bats ,  we thought they were filtering out this kind of information ,  because they simply couldn't analyze it but ,  it looks as if we were wrong recently there was this experiment with trees and a specific species of bats a bat called  the lesser spearnosed bat i mean it's got all kinds of surfaces with different shapes and angles so ,  well ,  the echoes from a tree are going to a mass of chaotic acoustic reflections ,  right ,  not like the echo from a moth so ,  we thought for a long time that bats stop their evaluation at simply that is a tree yet ,  it turns out that bats or at least this particular species ,  cannot only tell that is a tree ,  but can also distinguish between ,  say ,  a pine tree ,  and a deciduous tree ,  like a maple or oak tree ,  just by their leaves and when i say ,  leaves ,  i mean pine needles too professor  you are on the right track   it is actually the echo of all the leaves as whole that matters now ,  think ,  a pine tree with all those little densely packed needles those produce a large number of faint reflections in what's   what's called a    a smooth echo the wave form is very even ,  but an oak which has fewer but bigger leaves with stronger reflections ,  produces a jagged wave form ,  or what we called  a rough echo and these bats can distinguish between the two ,  and not just with trees ,  but with any echo that comes in a smooth or rough shape\n\n\nprofessor  the 19th century was the time that saw what we called realism developed in the european theater um  to understand this though ,  we first need to look at an earlier form of drama known as the well made play ,  which basically was a pattern for constructing plays ,  plays that   uh   beginning with some early 19th century comedies in france proved very successful commercially the dramatic devices used here weren't actually anything new they had been around for centuries but the formula for a well made play required that the certain of these elements be included in a particular order and most importantly ,  that everything in the plays be logically connected in fact ,  some of these playwrights would start by writing the end of a play and work backward toward the beginning ,  just to make sure each event led logically from what had gone before well ,  the first is logical exposition exposition is whatever background information you have to reveal to the audience so ,  they'll understand what is going on before this time ,  exposition might have come from actors simply giving speeches and then tell all about the feuding families of romeo and juliet but for the well made play ,  even the exposition had to be logical ,  believable so ,  for example ,  you might have two servants gossiping as they are cleaning the house and one says ,  oh ,  what a shame the master's son is still not married and the other might mention a rumor about a mysterious gentleman who's just moved into town with his beautiful daughter these comments are part of the play's logical exposition the next key element of the a well made play is referred to as the inciting incident after we have the background information ,  we need a key moment that gets things moving ,  that really makes the audience interested in what happens to the characters we just heard about so ,  for example ,  after the two servants reveal all this background information ,  we meet the young man just as he first lays eyes on the beautiful young woman ,  and immediately falls in love this is the inciting incident it sets off ,  the plot of the play now ,  the plot of a well made play is usually driven by secrets things that the audience knows ,  but the characters often don't know so ,  for example ,  the audience learns through a letter or through someone else's conversation who this mysterious gentleman is and why he left the town many years before but the young man doesn't know about this and the woman doesn't understand the ancient connection between her family and his and before the secrets are revealed to the main characters ,  the plot of the play proceeds as a series of sort of up and down moments for example ,  the woman first appears not to even notice the young man ,  and it seems to him like the end of the world but then ,  he learns that she actually wants to meet him too so ,  life is wonderful then ,  if he tries to talk with her ,  maybe her father get furious ,  for no apparent reason so ,  they can't see each other but ,  just as the young man has almost lost all hope ,  he finds out ,  well you get the idea ,  the reversals of fortune continue ,  increasing the audience's tension and excitement ,  making them wonder if everything is going to come out okay or not next comesan element known as the  obligatory scene it's a scene ,  a moment in which all the secrets are revealed and generally ,  things turn out well for the hero and others we care about ,  a happy ending of some sort this became so popular that a playwright almost had to include it in every play ,  which is why it's called  the obligatory scene and that's followed by the final dramatic element   the denouement or the resolution ,  when all the loose ends have to be tied up in a logical way remember ,  the obligatory scene gives the audience emotional pleasure but the denouement offers the audience a logical conclusion that's the subtle distinction we need to try very hard to keep in mind so ,  as i said ,  the well made play ,  this form of playwriting ,  became the basis for realism in drama ,  and for a lot of very popular 19th century plays and also ,  a pattern we find in the plots of many later plays and even movies that we see today\n\n\nlast time ,  we started to talk about glaciers and how these masses of ice form from crystallized snow ,  and some of you were amazed at how huge some of these glaciers are now ,  even though it may be difficult to understand how a huge mass of ice can move or flow ,  it's another word for it ,  it's really known that no secret that the glaciers flow because of gravity but how they flow ,  the way they flow ,  needs some explaining now ,  the first type of glacier flow is called  basal slip basal slip or sliding as it's often called ,  basically refers to the slipping or sliding of a glacier across bedrock ,  actually across a thin layer of water on top of the bedrock so ,  this process shouldn't be too hard to imagine what happens is that the ice at the base of the glacier is under a great deal of pressure   the pressure coming from the weight of the overlying ice and you probably know that under pressure ,  the melting temperature of water ,  of the ice i mean ,  is reduced so ,  ice at the base of the glacier melts ,  even though it's below zero degree celsius and this results in a thin layer of water between the glacier and the ground this layer of water reduces friction is   is like a lubricant and it allows the glacier to slide or slip over the bedrock now the next type of movement we will talk about is called  deformation you v already known that ice is brittle ,  if you hit it with a hammer ,  it will shatter like glass but ice is also plastic ,  it can change shape without breaking if you leave ,  for example ,  a bar of ice supported only at one end ,  the end ,  the unsupported end will deform under its own weight ,  it'll kind of flatten out at one end ,  get distorted ,  deformed think of deformation as a very slow oozing depending on the stresses on the glacier ,  the ice crystal within it reorganize and during this re organization the ice crystals realign in a way that allows them to slide pass each other and so the glacier oozes downhill without any ice actually melting now ,  there are a couple of factors that affect the amount of deformation that takes place or the speed of the glacier's movement for example deformation is more likely to occur the thicker the ice is ,  because of the gravity of the weight of the ice and temperature also plays a part here ,  in that cold ice does not move as easily as ice that is close to the melting point ,  in fact ,  it is not too different from  the way oil is ,  thicker at lower temperatures so ,  if you have a glacier in a slightly warmer region ,  it will flow faster than a glacier in a cooler region ok ,  um  now ,  i'd like to touch briefly on extension and compression your textbook includes these as types ,  as a particular type of glacier movement ,  but you will see that there are  as many textbooks that omit it as a type of movement as include it and i might not include it right now ,  if it weren't in your textbook but ,  basically ,  the upper parts of glaciers have less pressure on them so ,  they don't deform easily ,  they tend to be more brittle and crevasses can form in this upper layers of the glacier when the glacier comes into contact with bedrock walls or is otherwise under some kind of stress ,  but can't deform quickly enough so ,  the ice would expand or constrict ,  and that can cause big fissures big cracks to form in the surface layers of the ice ,  and that brittle surface ice moving is sometimes considered a type of glacier movement depending on which source you are consulting now ,  as you probably know ,  glaciers generally move really slowly but sometimes ,  they experience surges ,  and during these surges ,  in some places ,  they can move at speeds as high as 7    meters per year now ,  speeds like that are pretty unusual ,  hundreds of times faster than the regular movement of glaciers ,  but you can actually see glacier move during these surges ,  though it is rare\n\n\nprofessor  so we've been discussing 16th century native american life ,  and today we're going to focus on the iroquois and huron peoples they lived in the northeastern great lakes region of north america now ,  back then ,  their lifes depended on the natural resources of the forests ,  especially the birch tree the birch tree can grow in many different types of soils and is prevalent in that area student they are tall and white ,  the bark ,  i mean professor  yes the birch tree has white bark ,  and this tough protective outer layer of the tree ,  this white bark ,  is waterproof and this waterproof quality of the bark ,  it made it useful for making things like cooking containers ,  a variety of utensils and if you peel birch bark in the winter ,  we call it  the winter bark  ,  another layer ,  a tougher inner layer of the tree adheres to the bark ,  producing a stronger material so the winter bark was used for larger utensils and containers professor  well ,  birch bark is pliable and very easy to bend the native americans would cut the bark and fold it into any shape they needed ,  then secure it with cords until it dried they could fold the bark into many shapes professor  oh ,  that's one of the great things about birch bark the taste of the birch tree doesn't get transferred to the food so it was perfect for cooking containers but the most important use of the bark ,  by far ,  was the canoe since the northeast region of north american is interconnected by many streams and waterways ,  water transportation by vessels like a canoe was most essential the paths through the woods were often overgrown ,  so water travel was much faster and here's what the native americans did they would peel large sheets of bark from the tree to form lightweight yet sturdy canoes the bark was stretched over frames made from tree branches ,  stitched together and sealed with resin and when it dries ,  it's watertight one great thing about these birch bark canoes was ,  uh ,  they could carry a large amount of cargo for example ,  a canoe weighing about 5  pounds could carry up to nine people and 25  pounds of cargo professor  well like i said ,  the northeastern region is interconnected by rivers and streams and the ocean at the coast the canoes allow them to travel over a vast area that today would take a few hours to fly over you see ,  the native americans made canoes of all types ,  for travel on small streams or on large open ocean waters for small streams ,  they made narrow ,  maneuverable boats ,  while ,  while larger canoes were needed for the ocean they could travel throughout the area only occasionally having to portage ,  to carry the canoe over a land short distance to another nearby stream and since the canoes were so light ,  this wasn't a difficult task professor  exactly having an efficient means of transportation ,  well ,  that helps the iroquois to form a federation linked by natural waterways and this federation expanded from what is now southern canada all the way south to the dalever river and this efficiency of the birch bark canoe also made an impression on newcomers to the area french traders in the 17th century modeled their  well they adopted the design of the iroquois birch bark canoes ,  and they found they could travel great distances more than 15 kilometers a month now besides the bark ,  native americans also used the wood of the birch tree the young trees were used as supports for lodgings ,  with the waterproof bark used as roofing branches were folded into snowshoes and the native american people were all adept at running very fast over the snow in these birch branch snowshoes ,  which if you ever tried walking in snowshoes you know it wasn't easy", "source": "toefl_tpo", "evaluation": "exam"}
{"instructions": ["why does the professor mention shrub expansion into other environments , such as semiarid grasslands\nA. to suggest that new shrubland may not convert back to tundra\nB. to explain ho9w shrubland can expand in warm climate\nC. to cite a similarity between the types of shrubs in semiarid grassland and tundra environments\nD. to explain how a biological loop can cause shrub expansion", "why are nutrients in the soil not carried away by spring runoff\nA. the roots of shrubs prevent nutrient filled soil from being washed away\nB. most nutrients are not in the area of the soil most affected by runoff\nC. most nutrients remain frozen in the permafrost when spring runoff is at its peak\nD. most nutrients have been absorbed by vegetation before the runoff period begins", "what is the first lecture mainly about\nA. factors involved in the increased growth of shrubs in arctic alaska\nB. how temperature increases might be affecting the permafrost in arctic alaska\nC. why nutrient production of microbes in the soil in arctic alaska is declining\nD. reasons that grasslands are turning into tundra in arctic alaska", "what is one reason for the increase in shrub growth in arctic alaska\nA. decreases in grass and most growth have altered the balance of nutrients in the soil\nB. increases in ground temperature have led to increased microbial activity\nC. increases in average winter temperatures have permafrost permeable to water\nD. increases in snowfall have provided more water for shrubs", "what is the second lecture mainly about\nA. reasons that geologists study lake fossils in desert regions\nB. a comparison of ancient and present day lakes in desert environments\nC. geological evidence for the formation of ancient sand dunes\nD. a hypothesis for how some ancient desert lakes formed", "according to the professor , what feature of the sand dunes made the formation of the lakes possible\nA. the degree of slope of the sides of the dunes\nB. the presence of clay and silt particles in the dunes\nC. the position of the dunes relative to the wind and rain\nD. the narrowness of the valleys between the dunes", "what does the professor imply about the lack of water buffalo and hippopotamus fossils in the more recent lakes\nA. the level of water in the lakes was not sufficient for these animals\nB. the bottoms of the lakes were too sandy for these animals to stand in\nC. the location of the lakes made them too difficult of these animals to reach\nD. the vegetation near the lakes did not attract these animals", "what possible explanation does the professor give for the apparent absence of fish in the most ancient lakes\nA. the presence of predators\nB. lack of appropriate food\nC. lack of suitable water\nD. extreme desert temperatures", "what is the professor's opinion about the conclusions of the recent study of the limestone formations in the empty quarter\nA. they have changed the way geologists study desert environments\nB. they contradict findings about similar desert lakes\nC. they explain the causes of monsoons in the desert\nD. they need to be confirmed by additional studies", "what does the professor mainly discuss\nA. the findings of a study on prairie dog communication\nB. the way that mammals learn to make warning cries\nC. features that distinguish language from animal communication systems\nD. various types of signal used by animals to communicate with each other", "what is the professor's opinion of a recent study of prairie dogs\nA. she finds the study interesting but is not convinced that prairie dogs can communicate\nB. she thinks that some claims made by the researchers are not supported by their findings\nC. she sees the study as proof that mammals other than humans possess a form of language\nD. she thinks the researchers misinterpreted the high pitched barks as warming signals", "why does the student mention a research project she studied in a biology class\nA. to point out similarities in the behavior of rodents and monkeys\nB. to explain how she first became interested in animal communication\nC. to introduce an instance of an animal species that might have language\nD. to show how she applied her knowledge of linguistics in another course", "the professor uses the sentence , move the large coyote fast , in order to illustrate two features of language , what are they\nA. displacement\nB. learnability\nC. productivity\nD. discreteness", "what can be inferred about theatergoers in eighteenth century england\nA. they did not accept loutherbourg's set designs at first\nB. they were accustomed to sitting in dark theaters\nC. most of them attended the theater mainly to see popular actors\nD. some of them used the theater as a substitute for travel", "what does the professor mainly discuss in the last talk\nA. the history of set design in english theater\nB. a french painter's innovations in set design\nC. a kind of play popular in eighteenth century english theater\nD. a leading playwright of the eighteenth century", "according to the professor , how did loutherbourg create a feeling of greater depth on the stage\nA. he enlarged the stage area\nB. he used mainly dark colors in the painted backgrounds\nC. he carefully spaced separate pieces of scenery\nD. he used three dimensional objects in his sets", "what is the professor's opinion about the relationship between english landscape painters and loutherbourg\nA. he thinks english landscape painters were unfair in their criticism of loutherbourg's work\nB. he thinks loutherbourg's relationship with english landscape painters was less important than most experts think\nC. he thinks loutherbourg and the english landscape painters probably influenced each other\nD. he thinks english landscape painters helped loutherbourg's work gain in popularity", "why does the professor mention a storm that passed over loutherbourg's home\nA. to demonstrate the authenticity of loutherbourg's sound effects\nB. to provide context in a discussion about lighting effects\nC. to mention one of the problems the eidophusikon faced\nD. to explain how loutherbourg got an idea for a theater set"], "outputs": ["A", "B", "A", "A", "D", "B", "A", "C", "D", "C", "A", "C", "D", "D", "B", "D", "C", "A"], "input": "lecturer  so since we're on the topic of global climate change and its effects ,  in alaska ,  in the northern arctic part of alaska ,  over the last    oh   thirty years or so ,  temperatures have increased about half a degree celsius per decade ,  and scientists have noticed that there's been a change in surface vegetation during this time shrubs are increasing in the  tundra  tundra is flat land with very little vegetation just a few species of plants grow there because the temperature is very cold ,  and there's not much precipitation and because of the cold temperatures ,  the tundra has two layers  top layer ,  which is called the active layer ,  is frozen in the winter and spring ,  but thaws in the summer beneath this active layer is a second layer called  permafrost  ,  which is frozen all year around ,  and is impermeable to water lecturer  no ,  and that's one of the reasons that shrubs survive in the arctic shrubs are little bushes they're not tall and being low to the ground protects them from the cold and wind and their roots don't grow very deep ,  so the permafrost doesn't interfere with their growth now since the temperatures have been increasing in arctic alaska ,  the growth of shrubs has increased and the answer is both the size of the shrubs has increased and shrub cover has spread to what was previously shrub free tundra well ,  the connection is not so simple the temperature increase has occurred during the winter and spring ,  not during the summer but the increase in shrubs has occurred in the summer well ,  it may be biological processes that occur in the soil in the winter ,  that cause increased shrub growth in the summer ,  and here's how  there are  microbes  ,  microscopic organisms that live in the soil these microbes enable the soil to have more nitrogen ,  which plants need to live and they remain quite active during the winter there're two reasons for this  first ,  they live in the active layer ,  which ,  remember ,  contains water that doesn't penetrate the permafrost second ,  most of the precipitation in the arctic is in the form of snow and the snow ,  which blankets the ground in the winter ,  actually has an insulating effect on the soil beneath it and it allows the temperature of the soil to remain warm enough for microbes to remain active so there's been increased nutrient production in the winter and that's what's responsible for the growth of shrubs in the summer and their spread to new areas of the tundra areas with more new nutrients are the areas with the largest increase in shrubs lecturer  well ,  much of the soil is usually still frozen during peak run off and the nutrients are deep down in the active layer anyway ,  not high up near the surface ,  which is the part of the active layer most affected by run off but as i was about to say ,  there's more to the story the tundra is windy ,  and the snow is blown across the tundra ,  it's caught by shrubs and deep snow drifts often form around shrubs and we've already mentioned the insulating effect of snow so that extra warmth means even more microbial activity ,  which means even more food for the shrubs ,  which means even more shrubs and more snow around etc   it's a circle ,  a loop and because of this loop ,  which is promoted by warmer temperatures in winter and spring ,  well ,  it looks like the tundra may be turning into shrub land i mean maybe the shrubs will be abundant for a few years ,  and then it'll change back to tundra lecturer  well ,  shrub expansion has occurred in other environments ,  like semiarid grassland ,  and tall grass prairies and shrub expansion in these environments does seem to persist ,  almost to the point of causing a shift once is established ,  shrub land thrives ,  particularly in the arctic ,  because arctic shrubs are good at taking advantage of increased nutrients in the soil ,  better than other arctic plants\n\n\ncontinuing our discussion of desert lakes ,  now i want to focus on what's known as the  empty quarter  the  empty quarter  is a huge area of sand that covers about a quarter of the arabian peninsula today it's pretty desolate ,  barren and extremely hot but there've been times in the past when monsoon rains soaked the empty quarter and turned it from a desert into grassland that was dotted with lakes and home to various animals there were actually two periods of rain and lake formation  the first one began about 37 ,     years ago  and the second one dates from about 1  ,     years ago female student  excuse me ,  professor but i'm confused it's just sand ,  after all we know from modern day desert lakes ,  like lake eyre in south australia ,  that under the right conditions ,  lakes do form in the desert but the empty quarter lakes disappeared thousands of years ago they left behind their beds or basins as limestone formations that we can still see today they look like low lying ,  white or grey buttes ,  long ,  narrow hills with flat tops ,  barely a meter high a recent study of some of the formations presents some new theories about the area's past keep in mind though that this study only looked at 19 formations and about a thousand have been documented so there's a lot more work to be done according to the study ,  two factors were important for lake formation in the empty quarter  first the rains that fell there were torrential so it would've been impossible for all the water to soak into the ground second ,  as you know ,  sand dunes contain other types of particles ,  besides sand ,  including clay and silt now ,  when the rain fell ,  water ran down the sides of the dunes ,  carrying clay and silt particles with it and wherever these particles settled ,  they formed a pan ,  a layer that water couldn't penetrate once this pan formed ,  further run off collected ,  and formed a lake now ,  the older lakes ,  about half the formations ,  the ones that started forming 37    years ago ,  the limestone formations we see ,  they're up to a kilometer long ,  but only a few meters wide ,  and they're scattered along the desert floor ,  in valleys between the dunes so ,  the theory is ,  the lakes formed there on the desert floor ,  in these long narrow valleys and we know ,  because of what we know about similar ancient desert lakes ,  we know that the lakes didn't last very long ,  from a few months to a few years on average as for the more recent lakes ,  the ones from 1     years ago ,  well ,  they seemed to have been smaller ,  and so may have dried up more quickly another difference ,  very important today for distinguishing between older lake beds and newer ones ,  is the location of the limestone formations the more recent beds are high up in the dunes well ,  there are some ideas about that ,  and they have to do with the shapes of the sand dunes ,  when the lakes were formed 37    years ago ,  the dunes were probably nicely rounded at the top ,  so the water just ran right down their sides to the desert floor but there were thousands of years of wind between the two rainy periods ,  reshaping the dunes so ,  during the second rainy period ,  the dunes were kind of chopped up at the top ,  full of hollows and ridges ,  and these hollows would've captured the rain right there on the top now ,  in a grassland of lake ecosystem ,  we'd expect to find fossils from a variety of animals ,  and numerous fossils have been found at least at these particular sites well ,  the theory that has been suggested is that they migrated in from nearby habitats where they were already living then as the lakes dried up ,  they died out the study makes a couple of interesting points about the fossils ,  which i hope will be looked at in future studies at older lake sites ,  there's fossil remains from hippopotamuses ,  water buffalo ,  animals that spend much of their lives standing in water ,  and also ,  fossils of cattle however ,  at the sites of the more recent lakes ,  there 's only cattle fossils ,  additional evidence for geologists that these lakes were probably smaller ,  shallower ,  because cattle only use water for drinking so they survive on much less interestingly ,  there are clams and snail shells  but ,  no fossils of fish we're not sure why maybe there was a problem with the water maybe it was too salty that's certainly true of other desert lakes\n\n\nok ,  so last time ,  we covered the dances honey bees do to indicate where food can be found and the calls and songs of different types of birds excuse me ,   but when you talk about gorilla language ,  do you mean like ,  those experiments where humans taught them sign language or a language like ok ,  wait just a minute no one i hope oh ,  sorry ,  communication ,  right of course ,  that's a fair question ok ,  well ,  to start with ,  let's make it clear that language is a type of communication ,  not the other way around ok ,  so all communication systems ,  language included ,  have certain features in common for example ,  the signals used to communicate from the bee's dance movements ,  to the word and sentences found in human languages all these signals convey meaning and all communication systems serve a purpose ,  a pragmatic function of some sort warning of danger perhaps or offering other needed information but there're several features peculiar to human language that have ,  for the most part ,  never been found in the communication system of any other species for one thing ,  learn ability animals have instinctive communication systems when a dog ,  a puppy gets to certain age ,  it's able to bark it barks without having to learn how from other dogs ,  it just barks but much of human language has to be learned from other humans ok ,  that's another feature and it's a good example i mean i mention this  cause like in my biology class last year ,  i kind of remember talking about a study on prairie dogs ,  where ,  i think the researchers claimed that the warning cries of prairie dogs constitute language ,  because they have these different parts of speech you know ,  like nouns ,  to name the type of predator they spotted ,  adjectives to describe its size and shape ,  verbs   ,  but now it seems like all right ,  hold on a moment i'm familiar with the study you're talking about and for those of you who don't know ,  prairie dogs are not actually dogs they're a type of rodent who ,  who burrow in the ground in the grasslands of the western united states and mexico in this study ,  the researchers looked at the high pitched barks a prairie dog makes when it spots predator and from this they made some pretty   ,  well ,  they made some claims about these calls qualifying as an actual language ,  with its own primitive grammar but actually ,  these warning calls are no different from those found among certain types of monkeys and ,  well ,  let's not even get into the question of whether concepts like noun and verb can be meaningfully applied to animal communication another thing that distinguishes a real language is a property we call  discreteness  in other words ,  messages are built up out of smaller parts ,  sentences out of words ,  words out of individual sounds ,  etc now maybe you could say that the prairie dog's message is built from smaller parts ,  like say for example ,  our prairie dog spots a predator ,  a big coyote approaching rapidly so the prairie dog makes a call that means  coyote  ,  then one that means  large  ,  and then another one to indicate its speed no but the discrete units that make up language can be put together in different ways those smaller parts can be used to form an infinite number of messages ,  including messages that are completely novel ,  that have never been expressed before for example ,  we can differentiate between   a large coyote moves fast and say  move the large coyote fast or  move fast ,  large coyote ,  and i truly doubt whether anyone has ever uttered either of these sentences before human language is productive ,  an open ended communication system ,  whereas no other communication system has this property and another feature of language that's not displayed by any form of animal communication is what we call  displacement  that is ,  language is abstract enough that we can talk about things that aren't present here and now things like  my friend joe is not in the room or  it will probably rain next thursday prairie dogs may be able to tell you about a hawk that's circling overhead right now ,  but they never show any inclination to describe the one they saw last week\n\n\nas we have seen ,  the second half of the 18th century was an exciting time in europe  it was not only an age of great invention ,  but social changes also led to a rise in all sorts of entertainment ,  from reading to museums ,  to travel and finding himself in the middle of this excitement was an accomplished french painter named philippe jacques de loutherbourg loutherbourg arrived in england in 1771 ,  and immediately went to work as a set designer at the famous drury lane theater in london from his first shows ,  loutherbourg showed a knack for imagination and stage design ,  all in the interest of creating illusions that allowed the audience to suspend disbelief completely he accomplished this by giving the stage a greater feeling of depth ,  which he did by cutting up some of the rigid background scenery ,  and placing it at various angles and distances from the audience another realistic touch was using three dimensional objects on the set ,  like rocks and bushes as opposed to two dimensional painted scenery he also paid much more attention to lighting and sound than had been done before now ,  these sets were so elaborate that many people attended the theater more for them than for the actors or the story at the time ,  people were wild for travel and for experiencing new places  but not everyone could afford it loutherbourg outdid himself ,  however ,  with a show that he set up in his own home he called it the  eidophusikon  eidophusikon  means something like representation of nature ,  and that's exactly what he intended to do  create realistic moving scenes that change before the audiences  eyes in this ,  he synthesized all his tricks from drury lane  mechanical motions ,  sound ,  light ,  other special effects to create ,  if you will ,  an early multimedia production the  eidophusikon  was loutherbourg's attempt to release painting from the constraints of the picture frame after all ,  even the most action filled exciting painting can represent only one moment in time  and any illusion of movement is gone after the first glance but loutherbourg ,  like other contemporary painters ,  wanted to add the dimension of time to his paintings you know ,  the popular thinking is that loutherbourg was influenced by landscape painting at the very least we have to consider that it was more    it was more of a mutual thing we know ,  for example ,  that the important english landscape painter thomas gainsborough attended almost all of the early performances ,  and his later paintings are notable for their increased color and dynamic use of light loutherbourg's influence on the theater though ,  he was incredibly influential  the way he brought together design and lighting and sound as a unified feature of the stage ,  can easily be seen in english theater's subsequent emphasis on lighting and motion now ,  the  eidophusikon  stage was actually a box  a few meters wide ,  a couple meters tall and a couple meters deep that is ,  the action took place within this box this was much smaller of course than the usual stage but ,  it also allowed loutherbourg to concentrate the lighting to better effect also ,  the audience was in the dark ,  which wouldn't be a common feature of the theater until a hundred years later the show consisted of a series of scenes ,  for example ,  a view of london from sunrise that changes as the day moves on  mechanical figures ,  such as cattle ,  moved across the scene ,  and ships sailed along the river but what really got people was the attention to detail ,  much like his work at drury lane so ,  for example ,  he painted very realistic ships ,  and varied their size depending on their distance from the audience small boats moved more quickly across the foreground than larger ones did that were closer to the horizon other effects ,  like waves ,  were also very convincing they reflected sunlight or moonlight depending on the time of day or night even the colors changed as they would in nature sound and light were important in making his productions realistic he used a great number of lamps ,  and he was able to change colors of light by using variously colored pieces of glass ,  to create effects like passing clouds that suddenly change in color furthermore ,  he used effects to make patterns of shadow and light ,  rather than using the uniform lighting that was common at the time and many of the sound effects he pioneered are still in use today ,  like creating thunder by pulling on one of the corners of a thin copper sheet one of his most popular scenes was of a storm and there is a story that on one occasion ,  an actual storm passed over head during the show and some people went outside ,  and they claimed loutherbourg's thunder was actually better than the real thunder", "source": "toefl_tpo", "evaluation": "exam"}
{"instructions": ["what data from 100 years ago and today were entered into the computer model that the professor discusses\nA. the average temperatures in south florida\nB. the market prices of citrus fruit grown in south florida\nC. the numbers of animal species in south florida wetlands\nD. the landscape characteristics of south florida", "what does the professor imply about major weather patterns such as ei nino\nA. she does not believe they are the main cause of the changes in florida's climate\nB. she is certain that they have caused a worldwide decrease in the number of frosts\nC. she believes they contributed to the increase of citrus production in florida\nD. she does not fully understand what causes them", "what is the first  lecture mainly about\nA. the effect of the decrease in temperatures on wetlands\nB. the use of computer models to analyze temperature patterns\nC. the theory that land development affected the climate of south florida\nD. the importance of the citrus industry to the south florida economy", "why does the professor mention the building of canals in the wetlands\nA. to describe what the wetlands used to look like\nB. to emphasize that farmers need to transport their crops to other areas\nC. to explain how the wetlands were transformed into farmland\nD. to explain why people want to build farms there", "what is the  second talk mainly about\nA. various predators that threaten young birds\nB. various patterns of growth in young birds\nC. one way that birds protect their young\nD. one way that birds provide food for their young", "when do birds put on their most conspicuous distraction displays\nA. just before they lay their eggs\nB. immediately after they have laid their eggs\nC. just before their young become independent\nD. immediately after young have left the nest", "according to the lecture , what do birds usually do when putting on a distraction display\nA. they imitate another kind of animal\nB. they fly in circles around their nest\nC. they cover their nest with their wings\nD. they pretend they are sick or injured", "according to the professor , what contributed to the attitude of conformity in rural new england communities during the 1600s and 1700s\nA. people depended on their neighbors for their own survival\nB. people living in rural areas often had moved there from cities\nC. people had to live very close to their neighbors\nD. people had limited access to information from outside their community", "what are two features of cape cod houses that were influenced by climate\nA. the thickness of walls\nB. the slope of the roofs\nC. the number of windows\nD. the simplicity of the exterior", "what aspect of architecture in the united states is the third lecture mainly about\nA. the differences between rural and urban styles of housing\nB. the reasons for popularity of a particular type of house\nC. the various styles of houses that are popular in new england\nD. the decorative details that are typical of houses built in new england", "why does the woman refer to visiting her grandparents\nA. to explain why she is interested in residential architecture\nB. to explain why she knows a lot about the history of cape cod\nC. to explain why she is familiar with cape cod houses\nD. to explain why she enjoys visiting rural new england", "what is the main topic of the last talk\nA. how to analyze various types of advertising\nB. how to develop products that people will like\nC. how to use advertising successfully\nD. how to satisfy customer demands", "why does the professor talk about teachers\nA. to emphasize the advantages of marketing products to specific groups of people\nB. to illustrate how to select the most appropriate media for advertising a product\nC. to prove that it is not necessary to spend money on advertisements\nD. to show how a poorly communicated message can ruin a business", "according to the professor , what might be two results of not having a good advertising plan\nA. delays in the introduction of new products\nB. the loss of customers\nC. too much attention focused on one product\nD. the unnecessary spending of money", "what is the professor's point when she talks about a soup shop\nA. it is difficult to understand how some customers react to advertising\nB. it is important to ensure the quality of a product before advertising it\nC. a poorly chosen advertising message can have negative consequences\nD. some businesses remain unsuccessful even when they focus on the four m's"], "outputs": ["D", "A", "C", "C", "C", "C", "D", "A", "D", "B", "C", "C", "B", "D", "C"], "input": "when land gets developed for human use ,  the landscape changes we don't see as many types of vegetation ,  trees ,  grasses and so forth this in turn leads to other losses  the loss of animals that once lived there err but these are the obvious changes ,  but there are also less obvious changes like the climate one interesting case of this uh of changes in the local land use causing changes in climate ,  specifically the temperature is in florida yes ,  exactly florida has long had a great citrus industry  large growth of oranges ,  lemons and the like florida's winter is very mild  the temperature doesn't often get below freezing but there are some areas of florida that do freeze so in the early 19 's ,  farmers moved even further south in florida ,  to areas that were even less likely to freeze obviously ,  freezing temperatures are a danger to the crops a bad bout of cold weather ,  a long spell of frosts could ruin a farmer's entire crop ,  anyway ,  before the citrus growers moved south ,  much of the land in south florida ,  was what we called wetlands wetlands are areas of marshy ,  swampy land ,  areas where water covers the soil ,  or is present either at or near the surface of the soil for a large part of the year wetlands have their own unique ecosystems ,  with plants and animals with special and interesting adaptations very exciting ,  but it's not what we are talking about today oh ,  yes farmers moved south but the land was not suitable for farming you can't grow oranges in wetlands ,  so farmers had to transform the wetlands into land suitable for farming to do that ,  you have to drain the water from the land ,  move the water elsewhere ,  and divert the water sources such as rivers hundreds of miles of drainage canals were built in the wetlands now these areas ,  the new areas the farmers moved to ,  used to be warm and unlikely to freeze ,  however ,  recently the area has become susceptible to freezes and we are trying to understand why well ,  there are two theories one idea is as you suggest that major weather patterns ,  something like el ni o ,  are responsible but the other idea and this is the one that i personally subscribe to ,  is that the changes in the temperature pattern have been brought about by the loss of the wetlands well ,  think about what we've been studying so far oh ,  yeah bodies of water tend to absorb the heat during the day ,  and then they release the heat at night yes ,  exactly what you just said is what i want you all to understand bodies of water release heat and moisture back into the environment so places near large bodies of water are generally milder ,  err  slightly warmer than those without water and what i and others think is that the loss of the wetlands has created a situation where the local temperatures in the area are now slightly different ,  slightly colder than they were 1   years ago ,  before the wetlands were drained well ,  we were able to estimate this we have data about south florida's current landscape ,  uh the plant cover and we were able to reconstruct data about its landscape prior to 19   then we enter those data ,  information about what the landscape look like before and after the wetlands were drained we enter the data into a computer weather model this model can predict temperatures and when all of the data were entered ,  an overall cooling trend was predicted by the model well ,  actually the model shows a drop of only a few degrees celsius but this is enough to cause dramatic damage to crops if temperatures overnight are already very close to the freezing point ,  then this drop of just a few degrees can take the temperature below freezing and freezing causes frosts ,  which kill crops these damaging frosts wouldn't happen if the wetlands were still in existence ,  just a tiny temperature difference can have major consequences\n\n\nok ,  today we are going to continue our discussion of the parenting behaviorsof birds and we are going to start by talking about what are known asnow if you are a bird and there is a predator around because if the predator doesn't know you are there ,  it is not going to try to eat you but sometimes certain species of birds do the exact opposite when a predator approaches ,  they do their best to attract the attention of that predator well ,  theydo that to draw the predator away from their nest ,  away from their eggs or their young birds and the behaviors that the birds engage in to distract predators are called distraction displays and there are a number of different kinds of distraction displays most of the time ,  when birds are engaging in distraction displays ,  they are going to be pretending either that they have an injury or that they're ill or that they're exhausted you know something that'll make the predator think  ah  here is an easy meal distraction display is what's called the broken wing display and in a broken wing display ,  the bird spreads and drags a wings or its tail ,  and while it does that ,  it slowly moves away from the nests so it really looks like a bird with a broken wing and these broken wing displays can be pretty convincing another version of this kind of distraction display is where the bird creates the impression of a mouse or some other small animals that's running along the ground a good example of that kind of display is created by a bird called the purple sandpiper now what's the purple sandpiper does is when a predator approaches ,  it drags its wings but not to give the impression that its wing is broken but to create the illusion that it has a second pair of legs and then it raises its feathers ,  so it looks like it's got a coat of fur and then it runs along the ground swerving left and right ,  you know like it's running around little rocks and sticks and as it goes along ,  it makes this little squealing noise so from a distance it really looks and sounds like a little animal running along the ground trying to get away again to the predator ,  it looks like an easy meal now what's interesting is that birds have different levels of performance of these distraction displays they don't give their top performance ,  their prime time performance every time what they do is they save their best performances ,  their most conspicuous and most risky displays for the time just before the baby birds become able to take care of themselves and they time it that way because that's when they'll have made the greatest investment in parenting their young so they are not going to put on their best performance just after they laid their eggs ,  because they haven't invested that much time or energy in parenting yet the top performances are going to come later now you have some birds that are quiet mature ,  are quite capable almost as soon as they hatch in that case ,  the parent will put on the most conspicuous distraction displays just before the babies hatch ,  because once the babies are hatched ,  they can pretty much take care of themselves and then you have others birds that are helpless when they hatch in that case ,  the parent will save its best performances until just before the babies get their feathers\n\n\ntoday ,  we are taking a little detour from the grand styles of public architecture we've been studying to look at residential architectures in the united states since this is something we can all identify with ,  i think it will help us see the relationship between the function of a structure and its style or form this has been an ongoing theme in our discussions ,  and we will be getting back to it in just a moment i bet it is the ranch style house well ,  in this area ,  probably yes ,  sue they call it a capethat's the one here is a drawing of what we consider of a classic cape cod house these days ,  you see this style all over the united states but it first showed up in u 's northeast ,  in the new england region ,  around the late 16 's for those of you who don't know the northeast coastal region ,  cape cod is a peninsula ,  a narrow strip of land that jets out into the atlantic ,  and so    so ,  many houses in this particular style were built on cape cod ,  that the name of the place became the name of the style well ,  one reason is that it's a great example of form following function we've talked about this design principle a lot about form following function someone give me an application of this principle well ,  if it means that the design of a building should be based on the needs of the people who use it then ,  well ,  the architect has to be very practical to think about the people who'll actually be living in the house or working in the office building ,  whatever ,  so for the architect ,  it's all about the users not about showing off how creative you can be good ,  of course ,  for a cape cod house ,  it might be even more accurate to say that form also follows climate and whenever i visit my grandparents ,  it's really wet it's usually either raining or snowing or foggy and windy ,  too that's right so take another look at this drawing ,  and you can imagine how this design might be particularly helpful in that kind of climate notice how the house sits fairly low to the ground this relatively low compact structure helps the house withstand the strong winds blowing off the ocean slope of the roof ,  the steep angle helps keep off all that rain and snow that accumulates in the winter another thing ,  cape cod houses usually face south to take advantage of the sun's warm through the windows that's helpful in winter well ,  it's in the middle i mean since the heat never has to travel very far exactly ,  now see how the house has very little exterior decoration ,  that's also typical of early cape cod houses the wind was one reason ,  nothing sticking out that might blow away in the harsh weather ,  but there was probably another reason ,  not related to the climate ,  more a reflection of rural new england society back then ,  you see cape cod houses were not built in the big cities ,  where all the rich people lived back then these were modest dwellings ,  the people who built them simply couldn't afford lots of expensive decorative details but it was more than just a matter of money in these rural areas ,  people depended on each other for survival neighbors had to help and support each other in a difficult environment ,  so you didn't want to appear to be showing off you'd want to avoid anything that might set you apart from your neighbors ,  the same people you might need to help you someday so all these help to create an attitude of conformity in the community ,  and you can see why a modest ,  a very plain style would have become so widely imitated throughout rural new england it is plain ,  but you know its nice looking good point ,  and in fact it's precisely that aesthetic appeal ,  the the purity ,  the nearly perfect proportions of the house that's another reason for the cape cod's enduring popularity ,  even in places where the climate is so mild that its functional design doesn't matter\n\n\nlet's get started um ,  last time we were talking about the need for advertising now ,  let's look at how you can successfully call attention to the service or product you want to sell to succeed ,  you've got to develop a systematic approach if you don't come up with a system ,  um ,  a plan ,  you risk making decisions that waste money ,  or even drive away potential customers well ,  it covers what we call    the  four ms  the  four ms   market ,  media ,  money ,  message all are important areas to focus on when creating your advertising plan we will look at them one by one the first step is to look at your market ,  that's the people who might become customers ,  buyers of your service or product a market is a group of potential customers next ,  media  obviously the major media are television ,  radio ,  newspapers ,  magazines ,  um ,  billboards ,  and so forth there are all avenues of communication so ,  you do research ,  trying to determine which media will reach the most potential customers for the lowest cost for instance ,  if you have a product ,  that    oh   say teachers would like ,  then teachers are your market say ,  now your research turns up two magazines that teachers read and it also shows that the majority of teachers   say ages twenty to thirty   read the magazine about classroom activities while most teachers older than that read the other magazine ,  the one about ,  oh ,  let's say  educational psychology  you think your product will appeal most to teachers ages twenty to thirty ,  so you decide to put your advertisement in their favorite magazine ,  the one about classroom activities you don't waste money advertising in the  educational psychology  magazine ,  you know the one that the younger teachers generally don't read and since you're reaching the majority of the teachers in your target age group ,  you're probably spending your money well ,  which bring us to the third'm    money you have an advertising budget to spend ,  but how do you to spend it wisely again ,  research is the key good research gives you facts ,  facts that can help you decide ,  well ,  as we already mentioned ,  decide the right market to target ,  and the best media to use like ,  maybe you're advertising sports equipment ,  and you have been spending most of your budget during the holiday season when people buy gifts for each other now ,  in theory ,  that would seem a great time to advertise ,  but maybe research shows that you're wrong ,  that the customers who buy sports equipment tend not to give it as a holiday gift ,  but want to use it themselves in that case ,  advertising during a different season of the year might give you better results and ,  um ,  maybe at even lower ,  non holiday rates ,  so you actually save money but you need to get the facts  facts that come from good research to be certain and know for sure that you're getting your money's worth why buying it will make the customer's life easier ,  or safer or better somehow whatever the message is ,  make sure you get it right let me give you an example of not getting it right ,  ha  ha  ha   you are going to love this one  there was this soup shop ,  the soup was really tasty ,  but there weren't a lot of customers the owner thought that maybe if they gave something away for free with each purchase ,  then more people would come buy soup so they got some cheap socks ,  and they advertised to give a pair away with each bowl of soup but ,  then even fewer people came to the restaurant well ,  you can imagine why people started to associate the soup with feet  they began to imagine the soup smelled like feet the advertising message ,  soup means free socks ,  was a bad choice  it was a waste of money and worse ,  it caused the loss of customers now ,  i want everyone to get into small groups and come up with some examples ,  not of good advertising messages ,  but of truly disastrous ones think of real examples or make some up ,  and talk about the reasons those messages are unsuccessful and then we'll get back together and share", "source": "toefl_tpo", "evaluation": "exam"}
{"instructions": ["how is the chemical telomerase related to the telomere\nA. it resembles the telomere in structure\nB. it helps repair broken telomeres\nC. it is produced at the end of telomere\nD. it prevents telomeres from becoming too long", "the professor discusses research about the percentage of a chromosome's dna that contains genetic information , how did she feel about this research\nA. she doubted its accuracy\nB. she was surprised by its conclusion\nC. she was concerned about its implications\nD. she thought it was unnecessary", "why does the professor mention shoelaces\nA. to point out that chromosomes are arranged in pairs\nB. to describe the coiled shape of a chromosome\nC. to illustrate how chromosomes are protected from damage\nD. to explain how chromosomes are joined before dividing", "what does the professor say about the dna in a telomere\nA. it causes a cell to begin dividing\nB. it separates one gene from another\nC. it is genetically meaningless\nD. it has no function", "what does the professor mainly discuss in the first talk\nA. how genes control human development\nB. why various types of human cells divide at different rates\nC. how human chromosomes differ from one another\nD. why most human cells cannot keep dividing successfully", "what is the professor's opinion about the future of kramer junction power plant\nA. he is uncertain about the future of the kramer junction plant\nB. he believes the kramer junction plant will become a major source of power\nC. he is certain the kramer junction plant will not be able to increase its capacity\nD. he thinks the kramer junction plant will have many competitors", "what is the second lecture mainly about\nA. an efficient solution to the problem of storing solar energy\nB. energy policies in the twentieth century\nC. reasons that solar energy is not more widely used\nD. the superiority of solar energy to oil and natural gas", "what is the difference between passive and active heating systems\nA. passive systems are less reliable\nB. passive systems are difficult to install\nC. passive systems can be used at any location\nD. passive systems work without mechanical support", "what led to the popularity of solar energy in the 1970's\nA. new solar energy technologies\nB. advertising campaigns by solar energy companies\nC. an increase in the price of oil and natural gas\nD. the depletion of earth's reserves of oil and natural gas", "what are the two main problems solar power presents as an energy source\nA. it is a potentially dangerous source\nB. it is difficult to concentrate\nC. it is scientifically unsound\nD. it needs to be stored", "why does the professor mention dalton's soup and elkin jeans\nA. to illustrate that the success of mbwa often depends on the product involved\nB. to give examples of two companies that were resistant to trying mbwa\nC. to contrast a successful use of mbwa with an unsuccessful use\nD. to give examples of how the technique of mbwa is used in practice", "what is the third lecture mainly about\nA. two competing theories of business management\nB. tools that business managers can use to improve the efficiency of their employees\nC. a method for business to learn about the needs of their customers\nD. a way that business managers can better relate to their employees", "according to the discussion , what is a potential drawback of mbwa\nA. mbwa provides information about the opinions of a small number of people\nB. mbwa can provide conflicting information\nC. customers are often reluctant to share their opinion\nD. customers may be annoyed about being observed while they shop", "what does the professor say about the relationship between mbwa and market research\nA. mbwa is a refined version of a market research technique\nB. market research information is more valuable than information from mbwa\nC. information provided by mbwa complements information collected from market research\nD. business managers should replace market research with mbwa", "why does the professor discuss the mayor of baltimore\nA. to explain the origins of the method of mbwa\nB. to demonstrate that mbwa can be useful outside the business world\nC. to provide an example of mbwa can sometimes fa il\nD. to give an example where market research and mbwa provide similar types of information", "what does the professor say about music in french opera\nA. it resembled sacred church music\nB. it often inspired french novelists to write great piece of literature\nC. it revolved mainly around solo pieces\nD. it was secondary to the rhythmic flow of language", "what is the last lecture mainly about\nA. some changes that took place in the early years of opera\nB. difference between opera and other forms of music\nC. italy's musical influence throughout europe\nD. reasons that early french and italian opera did not survive", "why does the professor mention ancient greek theater\nA. to give an example of a culture that adopted opera from the italians\nB. to describe the type of setting in which opera was typically performed\nC. to point out a precursor of opera\nD. to explain how opera was introduced into french society"], "outputs": ["B", "B", "C", "C", "D", "A", "C", "D", "C", "D", "D", "C", "A", "C", "B", "D", "C", "C"], "input": "as we learn more about the dna in human cells and how it controls the growth and development of cells ,  then maybe we can explain a very important observation ,  that when we try to grow most human cells in a laboratory ,  they seem programmed to divide only a certain number of times before they die now this differs with the type of cell some cells ,  like nerve cells ,  only divide seven to nine times in their total life others ,  like skin cells ,  will divide many ,  many more times but finally the cells stop renewing themselves and they die and in the cells of the human body itself ,  in the cells of every organ ,  of almost every type of tissue in the body ,  the same thing will happen eventually ok ,  you know that all of a person's genetic information is contained on very long pieces of dna called chromosomes 46 of them are in the human cells ,  that's 23 pairs of these chromosomes of various lengths and sizes now if you'll look at this rough drawing of one of them ,  one chromosome about to divide into two you see that it sort of looks like ,  well actually it's much more complex than this ,  but it reminds us a couple of springs linked together ,  two coiled up pieces of dna and if you stretch them out you will find they contain certain genes ,  certain sequences of dna that help determine how the cells of the body will develop when researchers look really carefully at the dna in chromosomes though ,  they were amazed ,  we all were ,  to find that only a fraction of it ,  maybe 2  3   ,  converts into meaningful genetic information it's incredible  at least it was to me but if you took away all the dna that codes for genes ,  you still have maybe 7   of the dna left over that's the so called junk dna though the word junk is used sort of tongue in cheek the assumption is that even if this dna doesn't make up any of the genes ,  it must serve some other purpose anyway ,  if we examine these ends of these coils of dna ,  we will find a sequence of dna at each end of every human chromosome ,  called a telomere now a telomere is a highly repetitious and genetically meaningless sequence of dna ,  what we were calling junk dna but it does have an important purpose  it is sort of like the plastic tip on each end of a shoelace it may not help you tie your shoe but that little plastic tip keeps the rest of the shoelace ,  the shoe string from unraveling into weak and useless threads well ,  the telomeres at the ends of chromosomes seem to do about the same thing    protect the genes ,  the genetically functional parts of the chromosome ,  from being damaged every time the chromosome divides ,  every time one cell divides into two pieces of the ends of the chromosome ,  the telomeres ,  get broken off so after each division ,  the telomeres get shorter and one of the things that may happen after a while is that pieces of the genes themselves get broken off the chromosomes so the chromosome is now losing important genetic information and is no longer functional but as long as the telomeres are a certain length ,  they keep this from happening so it seems that ,  when the ,  by looking at the length of the telomeres on specific chromosomes ,  we can actually predict pretty much how long certain cells can successfully go on dividing now ,  there are some cells that just seem to keep on dividing regardless ,  which may not always be a good thing if it gets out of control but when we analyze these cells chemically ,  we find something very interesting ,  a chemical in them ,  an enzyme called telomerase as bits of the telomere break off from the end of the chromosome ,  this chemical ,  this telomerase can rebuild it ,  can help reassemble the protective dna ,  the telomere that the chromosome has lost someday we may be able to take any cell and keep it alive functioning and reproducing itself essentially forever through the use of telomerase and in the future we may have virtually immortal nerve cells and immortal skin cells or whatever ,  because this chemical ,  telomerase ,  can keep the telomeres on the ends of chromosomes from getting any shorter\n\n\nall right folks ,  let's continue our discussion of alternative energy sources and move on to what's probably the most well known alternative energy source    solar energy the sun basically provides earth with virtually unlimited source of energy everyday ,  but the problem has always been how do we tap this source of energy that's exactly it solar energy is everywhere ,  but it's also quite diffused and the thing is the dream of solar energy is not a new one humanity has been trying to use the sun's light as a reliable source of energy for centuries and around the beginning of the 2 th century there were actually some primitive solar water heaters on the consumer market but they didn't sell very well yeah and for better or for worse ,  we chose to go down that path as a society when you consider economic factors ,  it's easy to see why but then in the 197's ,  there was an interest in solar energy again well ,  not exactly the amount of oil and natural gas in the earth was still plentiful ,  but there were other reasons it's a political thing really and i'm gonna get into that now so what happened in the 197's was oil and natural gas became very expensive very quickly ,  and that spurred people to start looking into alternative forms of energy ,  solar energy probably being the most popular but then in the 8's ,  this trend reversed itself when the price of oil and natural gas went down alright ,  let's shift our focus now to some of the technologies that have been invented to overcome the problem of gathering diffused solar energy the most basic solution is simply to carefully place windows in a building ,  so that the sun shines into the building and then it's absorbed and converted into heat yep ,  greenhouses where plants are kept warm and provided with sunlight ,  because the walls of the building are made entirely of glass but we do also have more complex systems that are used for space heating and they fall into two categories ,  passive and active heating systems passive systems take advantage of the location or design of a house for example ,  solar energy is gathered through large glass panels facing the sun the heat is then stored in water filled tanks or concrete no mechanical devices are used in passive heating systems they operate with little or no mechanical assistance with active systems ,  on the other hand ,  you collect the solar energy at one location ,  and then you use pumps and fans to move heat from the collectors through a plumbing system to a tank ,  where it can be used to heat a home or to just provide hot water that's  well  that is a really good question as a matter of facts ,  science is still working on it ,  trying to find ways of enhancing energy storage techniques so that the coming of night or cloudy days really wouldn't matter that is the biggest drawback to solar energy the problem of what do you do in cases where the sun's light is weak or virtually non present so the storage of solar energy ,  lots of solar energy ,  is a really important aspect well actually ,  there have been some attempts to build solar energy power plants the world's largest solar power plant is located in kremer junction california it can generate 194 megawatts of electric power ,  but that's just a drop in the bucket right now the utility companies are interested in increasing the capacity of the kremer junction plant ,  but only time will tell if it will ever develop into a major source of power for that region ,  considering the economic and political factors involved\n\n\nok ,  as we've talked about a key aspect of running a successful business is knowing ,  um ,  getting a good sense of what the customer actually wants ,  and how they perceive your product so with that in mind ,  i want to describe a very simple method of researching customer preference ,  and it is becoming increasingly common ,  it's called    mbwa    which stands for managing by wandering around now ,  mbwa ,  that's not the most technical sounding name you've ever heard ,  but it describes the process pretty accurately here is how it works basically ,  um ,  the idea is that business owners or business managers just go out and actually talk to their customers ,  and learn more about how well the business is serving their needs ,  and try to see what the customer experiences ,  because that's a great way to discover for yourself ,  how your product is perceived ,  what its strengths and weaknesses are ,  you know ,  how you can improve it   that sort of thing you know dortans ,  they make soup and canned vegetables and such that's a good question ,  and well i don't want to pretend that w  mbwa is some sort of ,  um ,  replacement for other methods of customer research now ,  market research data definitely can give you a good idea of ,  um ,  of the big picture ,  but mbwa is really useful ,  it kind of filling in the blanks ,  you know ,  getting a good underground sense of how your products are used ,  and how people need to respond to them ,  and yes ,  the numbers of opinion you get is small so you do need to be careful ,  but ,  good business managers will tell you that the big fear they have and    and one of the most frequent problems they come across is well becoming out of touch with what their customers really want and need ,  you know ,  surveys and market research stuff like that ,  they can only tell you so much about what the customers actually want in their day to day lives managing by wandering around ,  on the other hand ,  well ,  that gets you in there and gives you a good sense of what customers need so    so when using combination then ,  mbwa and market research ,  well ,  they are powerful tools oh ,  here is another example for you ,  uh ,  senior executives for a clothing manufacturer it was ,  um ,  lken ,  lken jeans you know ,  they went and worked in a store for a few days ,  selling lken's cloths well ,  i would think that a lot of customers would be bothered by ,  you know ,  if i'm shopping ,  i don't know if i'd want some business representative coming up to me and asking me questions ,  it's   it's like when i get phone calls at home from market researchers ,  i just hang up on them professor oh ,  well ,  it's certainly true that well no one likes getting calls at home from market researchers or people like that ,  but i will tell you something most customers have the exact opposite reaction when it comes to mbwa now ,  don't ask me why ,  because i really have no idea ,  but the fact is that customers tend to respond really well to mbwa ,  which is the key reason for its success in fact ,  the techniques of mbwa work so well ,  they have actually been extended to all kinds of different contexts ,  like politics for instance ,  um ,  a few years back ,  the mayor of baltimore ,  um   i think his name was sheaffer or something like that anyway ,  he decided that the best way to serve the people of the city ,  of his city ,  was to actually get out there in it and experience the things that they experienced ,  so he'd ride around the city in ,  well ,  you know ,  in all parts of it ,  and he'd see all the potholes  he'd see how the trash was sometimes ,  um ,  not picked up off the side of the street and then he'd go back to his office and he'd write these memos ,  now they were memos to his staff about the problems he had seen ,  and how they needed to be fixed ,  you know that sort of thing ,  but the thing is he got all this information just by going around and seeing the different baltimore neighborhoods and talking to the people in them now he called it    smart politics ,  we'd call it mbwa ,  or just ,  playing good customer service\n\n\nthe word opera means work ,  actually it means works it's the plural of the word opus from the latin and in italian it refers in general to works of art opera lyrica or lyric opera refers to what we think of as opera ,  the musical drama opera was commonplace in italy for almost a thousand years before it became commercial as a venture and during those years ,  several things happened ,  primarily linguistic or thematic and both involving secularization musical drama started in the churches it was an educational tool it was used primarily as a vehicle for teaching religion and was generally presented in latin ,  the language of the christian church which had considerable influence in italy at that time but the language of everyday life was evolving in europe and at a certain point in the middle ages it was really only merchants ,  aristocrats and clergy who could deal with latin the vast majority of the population used their own regional vernacular in all aspects of their lives and so in what is now italy ,  operas quit being presented in latin and started being presented in italian and once that happened ,  the themes of the opera presentations also started to change and musical drama moved from the church to the plaza right outside the church and the themes again ,  the themes changed and opera was no longer about teaching religion as it was about satire and about expressing the ideas of society or government without committing yourself to writing and risking imprisonment or persecution ,  or what have you opera ,  as we think of it ,  is of course a resurrected form it is the melodious drama of ancient greek theater ,  the term  melodious drama  being shortened eventually to  melodrama  because operas frequently are melodramatic ,  not to say unrealistic and the group that put the first operas together that we have today then ,  were ,  well it was a group of men that included galileo's father vincenzo ,  and they met in florence he and a group of friends of the count of bardi and they formed what is called the camerata dei bardi and they took classical theater and reproduced it in the renaissance time this uh this produced some of the operas that we have today now what happened in the following century is very simple opera originated in italy but was not confined to italy any more than italians were and so as italians migrated across europe ,  they carried theater with them and opera specifically because it was an italian form what happened is that the major divide in opera that endures today took place the french said opera ought to reflect the rhythm and cadence of dramatic literature ,  bearing in mind that we are talking about the golden age in french literature and so the music was secondary ,  if you will ,  to the dramatic cadence of language ,  to the way the rhythm of language was used to express feeling and used to add drama and of course as a result instead of arias or solos ,  which would come to dominate italian opera the french relied on what the italians called recitativo or recitative in english the lyrics were spoken ,  frequently to the accompaniment of a harpsichord the french said you really can't talk about real people who lived in opera and they relied on mythology to give them their characters and their plots ,  mythology ,  the pastoral traditions ,  the novels of chivalry or the epics of chivalry out of the middle ages the italians said ,  no this is a great historical tool and what better way to educate the public about nero or attila or any number of people than to put them into a play they can see and listen to the english appropriated opera after the french opera came late to england because all theaters ,  public theaters were closed ,  of course ,  during their civil war and it wasn't until the restoration in 166  that public theaters again opened and opera took off the english made a major adjustment to opera and exported what they had done to opera back to italy so that you have this circle of musical influences ,  the italians invented opera ,  the french adapted it ,  the english adopted it ,  the italians took it back it came to america late and was considered to elitist for the general public but broadway musicals fulfilled a similar function for a great long while john jay chapman wrote about opera ,  quote ,   if an extraterrestrial being were to appear before us and say ,  what is your society like ,  what is this earth thing all about ,  you could do worse than take that creature to an opera end quote because opera does ,  after all ,  begin with a man and a woman and an emotion", "source": "toefl_tpo", "evaluation": "exam"}
{"instructions": ["what are two points the professor makes about stone meteorites\nA. they are the type of meteorite that most commonly falls to the ground\nB. they are type of meteorite most often seen in museums\nC. they are the oldest type of meteorite found on the ground\nD. they are the most difficult type of meteorite to find on the ground", "according to the professor , what feature of a meteoroid generally determines whether the meteoroid becomes a meteorite\nA. whether it was originally part of a larger meteoroid\nB. whether it originated in the inner or outer solar system\nC. what proportion of iron and stone it contains\nD. how large it is when it enters the earth's atmosphere", "what is the main topic of the first lecture\nA. the major differences between meteors and meteorites\nB. the origins of comets and asteroids\nC. the nature and origin of meteorites\nD. the similarities between objects in the inner solar system", "what comparison does the professor make to help describe the composition of asteroids and comets\nA. he compares them to stars\nB. he compares them to types of planets\nC. he compares them to rocks on earth\nD. he compares them to meteors and meteorites", "what does the professor say about the origin of meteors and meteorites\nA. they are pieces of asteroids or comets\nB. they are pieces of the planets in our solar system\nC. they are made from minerals that are otherwise uncommon in our solar system\nD. their origin cannot be determined", "why does the professor mention the louisville , kentucky pedestrian mall\nA. to discuss her favorite pedestrian mall to visit\nB. to illustrate how a pedestrian mall can overcome financial difficulties\nC. to give an example of a typical , american pedestrian mall\nD. to show how poor planning can affect the success of a pedestrian mall", "what are two aspects of location that need to be considered when planning a pedestrian mall\nA. the proximity to the customer base\nB. the number of nearby tourist sites\nC. the variety of restaurants in the area\nD. the access to public transportation", "what is the main topic of the second lecture\nA. how the first pedestrian mall was developed\nB. how pedestrian malls have affected business in america\nC. key considerations in creating a pedestrian mall\nD. ways that cities can better use pedestrian malls", "according to the professor , what is the basic reason for building pedestrian malls in the city center\nA. to increase retail activity in the area\nB. to reduce the noise made by automobile traffic\nC. to increase shopping conveniences for city residents\nD. to encourage people to move from the suburbs back into the city center", "why does the professor explain the design of a pedestrian mall\nA. to illustrate its importance to the success of a pedestrian mall\nB. to explain why pedestrian malls are so appealing to the shoppers\nC. to point out how a pedestrian mall looks different from other malls\nD. to show how the design is more important than the location", "what is the class mainly discussing in the third\nA. how beavers select the ecosystem where they live\nB. how ecosystem differ form on another\nC. the impact of human activities on an ecosystem\nD. the role of one species in an ecosystem", "according to the professor , what was the impact of the extensive hunting of beavers in north america\nA. it led to a decrease in the number of wetlands\nB. it led to a decrease in the number of swiftly flowing streams\nC. it led to an increase in the number of other animal species in the wetlands\nD. it led to an increase in the amount of groundwater", "what does the professor say about still water and swiftly flowing water\nA. beavers cannot adapt to living near swiftly flowing water\nB. still water and swiftly flowing water support similar ecosystems\nC. still water supports more life than swiftly flowing water\nD. wetland areas include large quantities of swiftly flowing water", "why does the professor interrupt the student when he first mentions european settlement in north america\nA. she had already mentioned that point\nB. she thinks the information he gave is unrelated to the topic\nC. she prefers to present the information in the lecture in a specific order\nD. she questions the accuracy of his point", "what is the main purpose of the last lecture\nA. to investigate the information known about the troubadours\nB. to explain the role of patriotic poetry during medieval times\nC. to explain why opinions about knights changed during the medieval period\nD. to compare two different types of medieval poems", "why does the professor mention that romance poems often included biographical sketches\nA. to emphasize the similarities between chanson authors and romance authors\nB. to explain why the social status of troubadours is known today\nC. to point out why the biographical sketches are reliable sources of information\nD. to provide evidence that many troubadours were also historians", "according to the professor , who was the intended audience for chanson poetry\nA. lords\nB. ladies\nC. knights\nD. troubadours", "what does the professor say about the political climate during the time troubadours were writing poetry\nA. it enabled chanson poetry to gain wide popularity over romance poetry\nB. it gave the troubadours time to devote themselves to writing poetry\nC. it inspired troubadours to write poetry that described their lord's deeds\nD. it made it difficult for troubadours to travel safely within their country"], "outputs": ["D", "D", "C", "B", "A", "D", "D", "C", "A", "A", "D", "A", "C", "C", "D", "B", "C", "B"], "input": "ok ,  i wanna go over the different types of meteorites ,  and what we've learned from them about the formation of earth ,  and the solar system uh  the thing is what's especially interesting about meteorites is that they come from interplanetary space ,  but they consist of the same chemical elements that are in matter originating on earth ,  just in different proportions but that makes it easier to identify something as a meteorite ,  as opposed to to just a terrestrial rock so to talk about where meteorites come from ,  we need to talk about comets and asteroids ,  which basically  they're basically made up of debris left over from the origin of the solar system 4 6 billion years ago now i'm going a bit out of a order here um i'm not going to go into any depth on comets and asteroids now ,  but we'll come back later and do that for now ,  i'll just cover some basic info about them ok ,  comets and asteroids the terrestrial planets  like mars and earth  composed largely of rocks and metals ,  and the large gas giants ,  like jupiter well ,  the solar system also has two analogous classes of objects ,  smaller than planets  namely ,  asteroids and comets relatively near the sun ,  in the inner solar system ,  between jupiter and mars to be precise ,  we've got the asteroid belt ,  which contains about 9  percents of all asteroids orbiting the sun these asteroids are uh like the terrestrial planets ,  in that they're composed mostly of rocky material and metals far from the sun ,  in the outer solar system ,  beyond jupiter's orbit ,  temperatures are low enough to permit ices to form out of water and and out of gases like methane and carbon dioxide loose collections of these ices and small rocky particles form into comets so comets are similar in composition to the gas giants both comets and asteroids are  typically are smaller than planets an even smaller type of interplanetary debris is the meteoroid and it's from meteoroids that we get meteors and meteorites roids  are ,  for the most part anyway ,  they are just smaller bits of asteroids and comets when these bits enter earth's atmosphere ,  well ,  that makes them so special that they get a special name they're called meteors most of them are very small ,  and they burn up soon after entering earth's atmosphere the larger ones that make it through the atmosphere and hit the ground are called meteorites so meteorites are the ones that actually make it through now we've been finding meteorites on earth for thousands of years ,  and we've analyzed enough of them to learn a lot about their composition ,  most come from asteroids ,  though a few may have come from comets so essentially they are rocks ,  and like rocks ,  they're mixtures of minerals they are generally classified into three broad categories  stones ,  stony irons and irons stone meteorites ,  which we refer to simply as ,  uh ,  stones ,  are almost entirely rock material they actually account for almost all of the meteorite material that falls to earth but even so ,  it's rare to ever find one i mean ,  it's easier to find an iron meteorite or a stony iron look at their names yeah  iron and some nickel ,  both of which are metals right ,  thank you at least that's part of it stone meteorites ,  if they lie around exposed to the weather for a few years ,  well ,  they're made of rock ,  so they end up looking almost indistinguishable from common terrestrial rocks  ones that originated on earth so it's hard to spot them by eye but we can use metal detectors to help us find the others ,  and they're easier to spot by eye so most of the meteorites in collections ,  uh ,  in museums ,  they'll be  they're iron meteorites ,  or the stony iron kind ,  even though they only make up about 5 percent of the meteorite material on the ground\n\n\nin the last 5  years or so ,  many american cities have had difficulties in maintaining a successful retail environment business owners in the city centers or the downtown areas have experienced some financial losses ,  because of a steady movement of people out of the cities and into the suburbs in general ,  downtown areas ,  just don't have that many residential areas ,  not that many people live there well ,  one way they've come up with some ways to attract more people ,  to shop downtown was by creating pedestrian malls it's a pretty simple concept really ,  it is essentially an outdoor shopping area designed just for people on foot and  well ,  unlike many other shopping malls that are built in the suburbs nowadays ,  these pedestrian malls are typically located in the downtown area of the city and  oh   there are features like white sidewalks ,  comfortable outdoor seating and maybe even fountains ,  and   you know ,  art there are variations on this model of course ,  but the common denominator is always the idea of creating a shopping space that will get people to shop in the city without needing their cars so i am sure you can see how having an area that's off limits to automobile traffic would be ideal for a heavily populated city where ,  well ,  the streets would otherwise be bustling with noisy ,  unpleasant traffic congestion concept which originated in europe was adopted by american city planners in the late 195's and since then ,  a number of unites states  cities have created pedestrian malls and many of them have been highly successful well ,  there are two critical factors to consider when creating a pedestrian mall    location and design both of which are equally important now let's start with the location in choosing a specific location for a pedestrian mall ,  there are in fact two considerations proximity to potential customers ,  um that's we'd call a customer base and accessibility to public transportation which we will get to in just a moment another really good example is convention center which typically has a hotel and large meeting spaces to draw visitors to the city for major business conferences and events but ideally ,  the pedestrian mall would be used by local residents ,  not just people working in the city or visiting the area so that's where access to public transportation comes in ,  either   um  either the designers plan to locate the mall near a central transportation hub ,  like a bus terminal ,  a major train or subway station or they work with city officials to create sufficient parking areas ,  not too far from the mall ,  which makes sense because if people can't drive into the mall area ,  well ,  then they need to have easy access to it well ,  design doesn't necessarily include things like sculptures or decorative walkways or  or even eye catching window displays ,  you know ,  art although i would be the first to admit those things are aesthetically appealing ,  however ,  visually pleasing sights ,  well ,  they are not a part of the pedestrian mall design that matter than most the key consideration is a compact and convenient layout one which allows pedestrians to walk from one end of the mall to the other in just a few minutes ,  so they can get to the major stores ,  resaurants and other central places without having to take more than one or two turns now ,  this takes careful and creative planning there could quite possibly be long lasting effects and i think a good example is the pedestrian mall in the louisville kentucky for instance now when the louisville mall was built ,  oh ,  it had lots of visual appeal ,  it was attractively designed ,  right in the small part of downtown and it pretty much possessed all of the other design elements for success but    uh ,  now ,  here is where my point about location comes into play there wasn't a convention center around to    to help draw in visitors ,  and well ,  the only nearby hotel eventually closed down for that same reason well ,  you can imagine how this must have affected local and pedestrian mall business owners sort of what was we call a chain reaction it wasn't until a convention center and a parking garage were built about a decade later that the mall started to be successful\n\n\nso ,  continuing our discussion of ecological systems    whole systems the main thing to keep in mind here is the interrelationships the species in a system uh  and even the landscape itself ,  they are interdependent let's take what you read for this week and see if we can apply this interdependence idea well ,  um  ,  how about beavers    ecosystems with beavers and waterways good ,  good ,  go on think about what it was like before the europeans settlers came ,  we'll come back to where you were headed ok ,  well ,  beavers live near streams and rivers and they block up the streams and rivers with like logs and sticks and mud you know ,  they build dams that really slow down the flow of the stream so then the water backs up ,  and creates like a pond that floods the nearby land and that creates wetlands ok ,  tell me more well with wetlands ,  it's like there is more standing water ,  more still water around ,  and that water is a lot cleaner than swiftly flowing water ,  because the dirt and sediment and stuff has a chance to sink to the bottom more important for our discussion ,  wetland areas support a lot more varieties of life than swiftly flowing water for example ,  there are more varieties of fish ,  or insects ,  lots of frog spices ,  and then species that rely on those species start to live near the wetlands too yes ,  like birds and mammals that eat the fish and insects ,  and you get trees and plants that begin to grow near the standing water that can't grow near the running water oh ,  and there's something about wetlands and groundwater too professor  ok ,  good wetlands have a big effect on groundwater ,  the amount of water below the surface of the land think of wetlands as ,  umm ,  like a giant sponge ,  the earth soaks up a lot of this water that's continually flooding the surface ,  which increases the amount of water below so where there're wetlands ,  you get a lot of groundwater ,  and groundwater happens to be a big source of our own drinking water today you just have a regular running stream ,  because there is no dam ,  so the ecosystem would be completely different ,  there would be fewer wetlands exactly ,  so ,  now let's go back to where you were headed before ,  mike you mentioned a change that occurred after europeans came to north america yeah ,  well ,  there used to be beavers all over the place ,  something like 2   million beavers ,  just in the continental united states but when europeans came ,  they started hunting the beavers for their fur ,  because beaver fur is really warm ,  and it was really popular for making hats in europe so the beavers were hunted a lot ,  overhunted ,  they are almost extinct by the 18 's ,  so  that meant fewer wetlands ,  less standing water well if there is less standing water ,  then the ecosystem can't support as many species ,  because a lot of insects and fish and frogs can't live in running water ,  and then the birds and animals that eat them ,  lose their food supply precisely ,  so the beaver in this ecosystem is what we call a keystone species the term keystone kind of explains itself in architecture ,  a keystone in an archway or doorway is the stone that holds the whole thing together ,  and keeps it from collapsing well ,  that's what a keystone species does in an ecosystem it's the crucial species that keeps the system going now ,  beaver populations are on the rise again ,  but there is something to think about consider humans as part of these ecosystems ,  you've probably heard about water shortages or restrictions on how much water you can use ,  especially in the summer time ,  in recent years and remember what i said about groundwater  imagine if we still have all those beavers around ,  all those wetlands\n\n\ni mean i thought poems were shorter  these are more like long stories i mean one of them was all about love ,  but the other one ,  the chan chan whatever it's called ,  the other one  well ,  it was all about fighting and battles well ,  think back to the very beginning of this course in the very broadest sense ,  we said it's written to evoke ,  to make you ,  the audience ,  have some kind of the emotional experience through the use of imagery ,  um ,  some kind of predictable rhythm and usually ,  but not always ,  there's more than one meaning implied with the words that are used let's start with the chanson poetry first that's chanson chanson poems became popular in europe ,  particularly in france ,  and the term is actually short for a longer french phrase that translates to um    uh  songs of deeds now ,  they were called songs of deeds because strangely enough ,  they were written to describe the heroic deeds or actions of warriors ,  the knights during conflicts we don't know a lot about the authors ,  it's still contested somewhat but we are pretty sure about who the chanson poems were written for that is   they were written for knights and the lords   the nobility that they served the poems were sung ,  performed by a minstrel ,  a singer who travelled from castle to castle ,  singing to the local lord and his knights well ,  there's a hero ,  a knight ,  who goes to battle ,  and he is admired for his courage ,  bravery and loyalty ,  loyalty to the lord he serves ,  his country and his fellow warriors in the field he's    um   he has a ,  he's a skilled fighter ,  willing to face the most extreme dangers ,  sacrificial ,  willing to sacrifice anything and everything to protect his king and country ok ,  now ,  given that the intended audience for these poems were knights and lords i guess they must've been really appealing to those knights and lords who were listening to them hearing the songs probably made them feel more patriotic ,  made them feel like it was a good and noble thing to serve their countries in whatever way they could good ,  we've got a pretty good picture of what the chanson hero was like now let's compare that to the hero in the other poem the other poem is an example of what's called romance poetry and the hero in the romance poem was also a knight well ,  first the purpose of the hero's actions was different the hero in romance poetry is independent ,  purely solitary in a way ,  not like the chanson poet who was always surrounded by his fighting companions he doesn't engage in conflict to protect his lord or country he does it for the sake of adventure ,  to improve himself ,  to show he's worthy of respect and love from his lady he's very conscious of the particular rules of social behavior he has to live up to somehow and all of his actions are for the purpose of proving that he is an upright ,  moral ,  well mannered ,  well behaved individual you may have noticed that in chanson poetry ,  there isn't much about the hero's feelings the focus is on the actions ,  the deeds but the romance poetry describes a lot of the inner feelings ,  the motivations ,  psychology you could say ,  of a knight trying to improve himself ,  to better himself ,  so that he's worthy of the love of a woman well ,  uh ,  digging into the historical context tells us a lot romance poetry emerged a few generations after chanson ,  and its roots were in geographic regions of france that were calmer ,  where conflict wasn't central to people's lives more peaceful times meant there was more time for education ,  travel ,  more time for reflection another name for romance poetry that's often synonymous with it is troubadour poetry troubadours were the authors of these new romance poems and we know a lot more about the troubadours than we do about the chanson authors ,  because they often had small biographical sketches added to their poems that gave pretty specific information about their social status ,  geographical location and a small outline of their career these information wasn't particularly reliable because they were sometimes based on fictitious stories of great adventure or scraped together from parts of different poems but there is enough there to squeeze or infer some facts about their social class the political climate had settled down enough so that troubadours had the luxury of being able to spend most if not all of their time ,  creating ,  crafting or composing their love songs for their audiences and yes these poems were also sung  many troubadours were able to make a living being full time poets which should tell you something about the value of that profession during medieval times", "source": "toefl_tpo", "evaluation": "exam"}
